Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction to OPPPs
Chapter 2: Public Health Impact of OPPPs
Chapter 3: Characteristics of Premise Plumbing
3.1: Introduction
3.2: Premise Plumbing Surface Area
3.3: High Surface-to-Volume Ratio
3.4: Water Heater
3.5: Premise Pipe Materials
3.6: Premise Plumbing Age
3.7: Water Hardness and Nutrient
3.8: Water Usage and Variable Flow Rates
3.9: Water Residence Time
3.10: Low Disinfectant Residual
3.11: Organics and Metals Leach from Premise Plumbing
3.12: Stagnation
3.13: Dead Ends
3.14: Convective Mixing in Distal Pipes
3.15: Resident Microbiome in Premise Plumbing
Chapter 4: Established OPPPs
4.1: Legionella pneumophila
4.1.1: L. pneumophila Epidemiology and Diseases
4.1.2: Risk Factors for L. pneumophila Disease
4.1.3: L. pneumophila Sources and Ecology
4.1.3.1: Sources of L. pneumophila
4.1.4: Ecology of L. pneumophila in the Built Environment
4.1.4.1: Premise plumbing temperature
4.1.4.2: Premise plumbing chlorine
4.1.4.3: Oxygen levels in premise plumbing
4.1.5: Long-Term Survival of Legionella
4.1.6: Strain Typing L. pneumophila
4.1.6.1: Methods for strain typing
4.1.6.2: Genome evolution during L. pneumophila infection
4.1.7: Transmission of L. pneumophila
4.1.8: Controlling L. pneumophila in Premise Plumbing
4.2: Pseudomonas aeruginosa
4.2.1: Introduction
4.2.2: Epidemiology, Diseases, and Risk Factors
4.2.3: Sources and Ecology
4.2.4: Transmission
4.2.5: Physiological Ecology
4.2.6: Disinfection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
4.2.7: Genome Variation and Population Diversity
4.2.8: Pseudomonas aeruginosa as an Indicator for OPPPs
4.2.9: Notes on the Burkholderia cepacia Complex
4.2.9.1: Introduction
4.2.9.2: Burkholderia cepacia infection and transmissibility
4.2.9.3: Burkholderia cepacia ecology
4.3: Mycobacterium avium Complex
4.3.1: Introduction
4.3.2: The MAC
4.3.3: Diseases, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors
4.3.4: Transmission Pathways
4.3.5: Habitats and Sources of the MAC
4.3.6: Physiological Ecology of the MAC
4.4: Amoebae and Protozoa
4.4.1: Introduction
4.4.2: Diseases and Risk Factors of Amoebae
4.4.3: Amoebae Ecology and Sources
4.4.4: Amoebae Transmission Pathways
4.4.4.1: Airway infection
4.4.4.2: Dermal infection
4.4.4.3: Ocular infection
4.4.5: Physiologic Ecology
4.4.6: Naegleria fowleri
4.4.6.1: Naegleria fowleri diseases and risk factors
4.4.6.2: Naegleria fowleri ecology, sources, and transmission
Chapter 5: Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens as Amoebae-Resisting Microorganisms
5.1:
Introduction to Amoebae-Resisting Bacteria
5.1.1: Phagocytic Microorganisms
5.1.2: ARB−PRB
5.2: Shared Habitats of Amoebae and OPPPs
5.2.1: Coincidence of L. pneumophila and Amoebae
5.2.2: Growth of Legionella pneumonia in Amoebae
5.3: OPPPs Isolated by Amoebal Co-Culture
5.3.1: OPPP Co-Culture
5.3.2: Resuscitation of Viable but Nonculturable (VBNC) L. pneumophila by A. castellanii
5.3.3: Residence of Mycobacterium spp. in Protozoa
5.4: Physiologic Ecology of Amoebae−OPPPs Interaction
5.4.1: Predation-Pressure and Nutrient Availability Influence PRB
5.4.2: Determinants of Phagocytosis
5.4.3: Coexistence of Amoebae and L. pneumophila
5.5: Consequences of Residence of OPPPs in Amoebae
5.5.1: Growth Stimulation of T. pyriformis by M. avium
5.5.2: Effect on OPPPs Carried by Amoebae
5.5.2.1: Increased ARM survival upon intra-amoebal residence
5.5.2.2: Increased ARM virulence upon intra-amoebal residence
5.5.2.3: Growth of L. pneumophila in amoebae
Chapter 6: Common Features and Sources of Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens
6.1: Introduction
6.2: Shared OPPP Characteristics Relevant to Survival, Persistence, and Growth in Premise Plumbing
6.2.1: Disinfectant Resistance
6.2.2: Surface Adherence and Biofilm Formation
6.2.3: Growth in Premise Plumbing at Low Organic Carbon Concentrations
6.2.4: Growth at Low-Oxygen Concentrations
6.2.5: High-Temperature Tolerance
6.2.6: Desiccation Tolerance
6.2.7: OPPP Survival and Growth in Amoebae
6.2.8: Adaptation to Novel Environmental Stress
6.3: Selection for OPPPs
6.3.1: Selection for Disinfectant Resistance
6.3.2: Selection in Estuaries
6.3.3: Selection Due to Slow Growth
6.3.4: Surface Adherence and Biofilm Formation
6.3.5: OPPPs are ARMs
6.3.6: Thermal Tolerance
6.3.7: Growth and Survival under Low Oxygen and Anaerobic Conditions
6.4: Sources of OPPPs
6.4.1: Common OPPP Sources
6.4.2: Novel OPPP Sources
6.4.2.1: Granular-activated charcoal (carbon) filters as OPPP sources
6.4.2.2: Refrigerator water and ice as OPPP sources
6.4.2.3: Dental units and water as OPPP sources
6.4.2.4: Operating room heater-coolers as OPPP sources
6.5: Transmission of OPPPs
Chapter 7: Introduction to Emerging Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens
7.1: Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
7.1.1: Diseases and Risk Factors of S. maltophilia
7.1.2: Ecology and Habitats of S. maltophilia
7.1.3: Source Tracking and Fingerprinting of S. maltophilia
7.1.4: Genetic Variability of S. maltophilia
7.1.5: Physiological Ecology of S. maltophilia
7.2: Acinetobacter baumannii
7.2.1: Introduction
7.2.2: Epidemiology and Costs of A. baumannii Infection
7.2.3: Risk Factors for A. baumannii Infection
7.2.4: Sources of A. baumannii
7.2.5: Transmission of A. baumannii
7.2.6: Physiological Ecology of A. baumannii
7.2.7: Genome Reorganization of A. baumannii
7.3: Sphingomonas paucimobilis
7.3.1: Introduction to Sphingomonas spp.
7.3.2: S. paucimobilis Infections and Risk Factors
7.3.3: Epidemiology and S. paucimobilis Infection Sources
7.3.4: Unique S. paucimobilis Features
7.3.5: Ecology of S. paucimobilis
7.4: Methylobacterium Species
7.4.1: Introduction
7.4.2: Disease and Risk Factors
7.4.3: Methylobacterium spp. Epidemiology and Infection Sources
7.4.4: Ecology of Methylobacterium spp.
7.4.5: Methylobacterium spp. as Anti-OPPP Bacteria
7.5: Segniliparus Species
7.5.1: Introduction
7.5.2: Disease and Risk Factors
7.5.3: Unique Segniliparus spp. Features
7.5.4: Ecology and Sources of Segniliparus spp.
7.6: Cupriavidus spp.
7.6.1: Introduction
7.6.2: Disease and Risk Factors
7.6.3: Epidemiology and Cupriavidus Infection Sources
7.6.4: Unique Cupriavidus Structural Features
7.6.5: Ecology of Cupriavidus spp.
Chapter 8: Factors Selecting for Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens in Premise Plumbing
8.1: Introduction
8.2: Physiochemical Factors Selecting for OPPPs in Premise Plumbing
8.2.1: Surface Adherence and Biofilm Formation
8.2.2: Disinfectant Resistance
8.2.3: Low Organic Matter Concentration
8.2.4: Stagnation and Low Oxygen
8.2.5: Amoebae Predation
8.2.6: Heat Tolerance
8.2.7: Desiccation Resistance of OPPPs
8.3: Genetic Factors Influencing OPPPs in Premise Plumbing
8.3.1: Genome Reorganization
8.3.2: Horizontal Gene Transmission
8.3.3 Survival Benefit of Genome Reorganization
Chapter 9: Detection, Isolation, and Source Tracking of OPPPs
9.1: Distinguishing between Premise Plumbing Pathogens and Contaminants
9.2: Sources of OPPPs
9.3: Selective Media for Recognized OPPPs
9.4: The Question of Cultivation versus DNA-Based Detection
9.5: The Problem of VBNC State
9.6: Detection and Isolation of Novel OPPPs
9.6.1: Selection for ARMs
9.6.2: Selection for Disinfectant-Resistant Microorganisms
9.6.3: Selection of Biofilm-Forming Microorganisms
9.6.4: Heat Resistance
9.6.5: Growth at Low Oxygen
9.6.6: Desiccation Resistance
9.7: Source Tracking
9.7.1: Sample Selection
9.7.2: Fingerprinting
Chapter 10: OPPP Notification and Challenges to Current Water Treatment Practices
10.1: Introduction
10.2: Notification
10.3: Challenges to Current Water Treatment Practices
10.3.1: OPPP Numbers Increase from a Point Source
10.3.2: What Samples to Collect for OPPP Monitoring?
10.3.3: Unknown Dose-Response Values
10.3.4: OPPP Numbers Do Not Correlate with E. coli, Fecal Coliforms, and Heterotrophic Plate Count
10.3.5: Is Pseudomonas aeruginosa a Surrogate or Indicator for OPPPs?
10.3.6: Disinfection Following E. coli Guidance Selects for OPPPs
Chapter 11: Management and Remediation of OPPPs
11.1: Introduction
11.2: HACCP Analysis of Hospital Mycobacterium chimaera Outbreaks
11.2.1: Hazard Analysis
11.2.2: Critical Control Points
11.2.3: Critical Limits
11.2.4: Monitoring Procedures
11.2.5: Corrective Actions
11.2.6: Record Keeping
11.2.7: Verification
11.3: Remediation Measures for Water Systems, Buildings, and Homes
11.3.1: Measures by Water System Operators
11.3.2: Measures by Building Owners or Managers
11.3.3: Management and Remediation in Hospitals and Healthcare Facilities
11.3.4: Management and Remediation by Homeowners
11.3.5: Speculative Remediation Measures
Case Studies
Index