Operational Aircraft Performance and Flight Test Practices is intended to serve as a single source reference, from the basic theory to practical cases, for certification flight testing and operational performance monitoring. It provides more real-life examples than are offered in traditional textbooks. To this end, the first part of every subject begins with the development of the basic performance equations based on a given set of assumptions. Following this, we deconstruct the maneuver being analyzed to validate its components (create small flight test packages to validate models and expected airplane behavior). Then, flight test considerations are discussed including required instrumentation, flight test risk and risk mitigation, data scatter, data reduction and presentation of the performance information to the flight crew. Several examples of flight test results help the reader better understand what they may be faced with when collecting data to create performance models.
There is a major focus on FAA 14 CFR Part 25 certification requirements as a basis for discussion since the format of this set of regulations is publicly available and clearly shows the basic items that go into demonstrating that an airplane is safe to operate. The general approach is also valid for certification under Part 23 or military specifications and, from time to time, the reader will encounter these additional requirements to show variance into airplane certified performance. Throughout the book, readers will find review of accidents and incidents that have occurred on various airplanes. It is not the purpose of this book to assign blame or liability, but rather to share experiences and lessons-learned to hopefully aid in the prevention of future accidents and incidents as well as changes in regulations to continue improving aviation safety.
CONTENTS
1 Atmosphere
2 Measuring Altitude
3 Measuring Airspeed
4 Altimetry Error
5 Weight and Balance
6 Lift and Stall
7 Stall Testing
8 Thrust and Drag Modeling
9 Flight Envelope
10 Cruise Performance and Flight Endurance
11 Cruise and Drag Performance Testing
12 Climb Performance
13 Climb Capability OEI
14 Turn Performance and Maneuver Margin
15 Takeoff Performance
16 Takeoff Performance Testing
17 Rejected Takeoff Performance
18 Rejected Takeoff Performance Testing and AFM Takeoff Field Length
19 Landing Performance
20 Landing Performance Testing and AFM
Author(s): Mario Asselin
Series: AIAA Education Series
Publisher: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 1035
City: Reston
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Acknowledgement
Preface
Chapter 1: Atmosphere
Atmospheric Properties
Perfect Gas
Atmosphere to 65,617 Feet
Standard Atmosphere
Atmospheric Ratios
Temperature, Pressure, and Density Altitudes
Exercises
References
Chapter 2: Measuring Altitude
Introduction
Pressure Altitude
Radar Altitude
GPS Altitude
Exercises
Reference
Chapter 3: Measuring Airspeed
Introduction
True Airspeed, Speed of Sound, and Mach Number
Equivalent Airspeed
Calibrated Airspeed
Ground and Vertical Speeds
Instruments: Airspeed Indicators
Exercises
Reference
Chapter 4: Altimetry Error
Indicated Airspeed/Altitude
Certification Regulations
Flight Testing for Air Data Errors
Probe Location: Manufacturing and Maneuver-Based Errors
Static Source Error Correction (SSEC)
Sensor Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Calibration
Flight Manual: Presenting the Information to the Flight Crew
Unreliable Airspeed (URA)
Concluding Remarks
Exercise
References
Chapter 5: Weight and Balance
Introduction
Weight Breakdown and Definitions
Aircraft Weighing: Theory and Practice
Center of Gravity: It’s a Balancing Act
Lateral CG
Vertical CG
Mass Moment of Inertia
Fuel Weight and CG
Passenger Weight
Cargo and Checked Baggage
Typical Weight and Center of Gravity Envelopes
Flight Testing and Flight Test Equipment and Ballast
Airplane Weighing Procedures and Documentation
Weight a Minute
Tracking the BEW In-Service
Impact of Weight on Performance: Examples
Exercises
References
Chapter 6: Liftft and Stall
Basic Airplane Geometry
Lift and Lift Equation
Lift Curve and Lift Distribution
Lift Limit: Aerodynamic Stall
Display of Angle of Attack in the Cockpit
Icing
Ice Protection Systems
Manufacturing Tolerance: An Aerodynamic Perspective
References
Chapter 7: Stall Testing
Importance of a Stall Program on Airplane Certification
Defining Stall from a Certification Point of View
Stall Speed Testing
Creating a Stall Speed Model
Presenting the Information to the Flight Crew
Exercise
References
Chapter 8: Thrust and Drag Modeli
Drag Model
Slow Flight Speed Domain
Thrust Model
Thrust Summary
Thrust-Drag Bookkeeping
References
Chapter 9: Flight Envelope
A Regulation-Based Limit
Low-Speed Limit
High-Speed Limit
Maximum Altitude
Temperature Envelope
Flaps Out and Gear Down Envelopes
Placard Speeds
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Cruise Performance and Flight Endurance
Defining Range
Useful Parameters
Specific Air Range (SAR)
Range Equation: Turbojet/Turbofans
Range Equation: Reciprocating/Turboprop
Fuel Reserves
Impact of Wind on Range
Payload-Range Diagram
Flight Endurance
Electrical Propulsion: A Step Change?
Hybrid-Electric: An Evolutionary Change
The Case for the Reduced Energy Plane: The Hydrogen Plane
References
Chapter 11: Cruise and Drag Performance Testing
Creating a Drag Model from Flight Test Results
Testing for Low-Speed Drag
Testing for High-Speed Drag
Testing for SAR
Testing for Zero Fuel Level
Presenting the Information to the Flight Crew
Fuel (Energy) Management and Conservation
Chapter 12: Climb Performance
Developing a Climb Performance Model
Factors Influencing Climb Performance
Climb Schedules
Descending Flight
Load Factor and Flight Path Variation
Energy Height
Certification Requirements
Flight Test and Data Reduction
Presenting the Information to a Flight Crew
Exercise
Chapter 13: Climb Capability OEI
Impact of One Engine Inoperative (OEI) on Climb Performance
Certification Regulations: Part 25 Transport Category Airplanes
Flight Test and Check Climbs
Presenting the Takeoff Weight Limited by Climb Requirements to a Flight Crew
Obstacle Clearance
Presenting the Climb Information for Obstacle Clearance to a Flight Crew
Gliding Flight
Exercise
Reference
Chapter 14: Turn Performance and Maneuver Margin
Building a Basic Model
Special Cases for Turn Performance
Altitude Effects on Sustainable Turn Performance Flight Envelope
Energy Maneuverability
Inner Wing Stall in a Turn
Maneuver Margin and Certification Regulations
Buffet Envelope
Unrestricted Turn Performance
Turn Performance under OEI Conditions
Exercises
Reference
Chapter 15: Takeoff Performance
Takeoff Distance Definition
Basic Takeoff Performance Model: Takeoff Segments
Takeoff Speed Summary
Takeoff Distance, Acceleration-Go
Certification Regulations: Part 25 Transport Category Airplanes
Exercises
Chapter 16: Takeoff Performance Testing
Takeoff Distance Modeling
Minimum Control Speed: Air VMCA
Certification Regulations: Robustness of Takeoff Procedure
Takeoff Performance Testing: Risks and Mitigations
Exercise
Reference
Chapter 17: Rejected Takeoff Performance
Why Reject a Takeoff?
RTO Distance Definition
Stopway
Runway Safety Area (RSA)
Engineered Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS) for Airplane Overruns
References
Chapter 18: Rejected Takeoff Performance Testing and AFM Takeoff Field Length
Braking Performance and Testing RTO
Testing for Minimum Control Speed, Ground
RTO Testing
Maximum Kinetic Energy Testing (Max KE)
Maximum Wheel Speed
Airplane Flight Manual: Takeoff Field Length (TOFL)
References
Chapter 19: Landing Performance
Basic Modeling
Air Segment
Transition Segment
Ground Run Segment
Total Landing Distance
Operational Requirements
Exercises
References
Chapter 20: Landing Performance Testing and A
Preparing for a Landing Distance Test Campaign
Testing for the Air Segment
Testing for the Transition Segment
Testing for the Ground Run Segment
Total Landing Distance
Presenting the Information to the Flight Crew
Time of Arrival Landing Performance
Steep Approach
Transport Canada Steeper Requirements
Reference
About the Author
Index
Supporting Materials
