Oncogenic Viruses, Volume 2: Medical Applications of Viral Oncology Research

Front Cover
Oncogenic Viruses Volume 2
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
Preface—Oncogenic Viruses: Up To Recent Knowledge
References
Acknowledgments
1 Vitamin D new therapy for breast cancer prevention
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Breast cancer
1.2.1 Generality
1.2.2 Anatomy
1.2.3 Symptoms
1.2.4 Breast cancer types
1.2.5 Risk factors
1.2.5.1 Endogenous hormonal factors
1.2.5.1.1 Early age of first menstruation
1.2.5.1.2 Late menopause
1.2.5.2 Exogenous hormonal factors
1.2.5.2.1 Oral contraceptives
1.2.5.2.2 Hormone replacement therapy
1.2.5.3 Reproductive factors
1.2.5.3.1 Parity and early age at first motherhood
1.2.5.3.2 Breastfeeding
1.2.5.4 Genetic, family, demographic, and health factors
1.2.5.4.1 History of genetic mutations
1.2.5.4.2 Family history
1.2.5.4.3 Age
1.2.5.4.4 Ionizing radiation
1.2.5.4.5 Mammography density
1.2.5.5 Lifestyle and nutrition factors
1.2.5.5.1 Overweight
1.2.5.5.2 Smoking
1.2.5.5.3 Alcohol
1.3 Viral etiology of breast cancer
1.4 Mouse mammary tumor virus like
1.5 Human papilloma virus
1.6 Epstein–Barr virus
1.7 Vitamin D
1.7.1 Generality
1.7.2 Biosynthesis
1.8 Food needs and sources
1.9 Storage sites
1.10 Vitamin D receptors
1.11 Vitamin D new therapy for breast cancers prevention
1.11.1 Relationship between vitamin D and breast cancer
1.12 Mechanism of action
1.13 Vitamin D and breast cancer prevention
1.14 Conclusion
References
2 Molecular diagnosis of human papillomavirus related to cervical cancer
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Etiopathogenesis of human papillomavirus infection
2.2.1 Human papillomavirus genome structure
2.2.1.1 The long control region
2.2.1.2 The early control region (E)
2.2.1.3 The late region (L)
2.2.2 Mechanism of human papillomavirus infection in the cervix and carcinogenesis
2.3 Diagnosis of human papillomavirus viral genome
2.3.1 Identification of human papillomavirus without genotyping
2.3.1.1 Signal amplification method: liquid phase in situ hybridization
2.3.1.2 Polymerase chain reaction amplification technique
2.3.1.2.1 Polymerase chain reaction consensus
2.3.2 Human papillomavirus genotyping
2.3.2.1 Genotyping by sequencing
2.3.2.2 DNA microarray genotyping
2.3.2.3 Genotyping using Luminex technology
2.3.3 Human papillomavirus E6/E7 mRNA and protein detection
2.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3 Risk of the development of cancers induced by the consumption of mussels accumulating metallic trace elements
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Trace metal elements
3.2.1 Origin and cycle of trace metal elements in the natural environment
3.2.2 Properties of trace metal elements
3.2.2.1 The essential elements
3.2.2.2 Nonessential elements
3.2.2.2.1 Lead
Sources of lead
3.2.2.2.1.1 Behavior of lead in aquatic environments
3.2.2.2.1.2 Lead toxicity
3.2.2.2.1.3 Carcinogenic effect of lead
3.2.2.2.2 Cadmium
3.2.2.2.2.1 Properties of cadmium
3.2.2.2.2.2 Sources of cadmium
3.2.2.2.2.3 Behavior of cadmium in the aquatic environment
3.2.2.2.2.4 Cadmium toxicity
3.2.2.2.2.5 Carcinogenic effect of cadmium
3.2.2.2.3 Mercury
3.2.2.2.3.1 Property of mercury
3.2.2.2.3.2 Sources of mercury
3.2.2.2.3.3 Mercury toxicity
3.2.2.2.3.4 Behavior of mercury in aquatic environments
3.2.2.2.3.5 Carcinogenic effect of mercury
3.2.3 Transfer of trace metal elements in the trophic chain
3.2.4 Effects of metal toxicity on human health
3.3 Bivalve molluscs
3.3.1 Classification of lamellibranchs (bivalves)
3.3.1.1 Habitat
3.3.1.2 Food
3.3.1.3 Metallic pollution bioindicators
3.3.2 The mytilidae as bioindicators
3.3.3 Response of marine organisms to trace metal elements
3.3.3.1 Bioaccumulation
3.3.3.2 Sequestration and elimination
3.3.3.2.1 Sequestration
3.3.3.2.1.1 Metallothionein
3.3.3.2.2 Elimination
3.4 Oxidative stress and cancer
3.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 Oncolytic virus cancer therapeutic options and integration of artificial intelligence into virus cancer research
4.1 Introduction
4.2 History
4.3 General properties of oncovirus
4.4 Oncolytic viral therapy: a new era of treatment
4.4.1 Cancer immunoediting hypothesis
4.4.2 Pharmacokinetics of oncolytic viral therapy
4.5 Applications of oncolytic viral therapy
4.5.1 Diagnosis
4.5.2 Tumor targeted cell delivery by oncolytic virotherapy
4.5.3 Genetically modified oncolytic virus
4.5.4 Integration of oncolytic viral therapy in radiotherapy
4.5.5 Integration of oncolytic viral therapy in chemotherapy
4.5.6 Integration of oncolytic viral therapy with immune inhibitor checkpoints
4.6 Limitations
4.7 Integration of artificial intelligence or machine learning into cancer research
4.8 Future concerns
4.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
5 Oncoviruses: future prospects of molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Mechanism of oncovirus
5.3 Types and mechanism of oncoviruses
5.3.1 Epstein–Barr virus
5.3.2 Hepatitis B virus
5.3.3 Aviadenovirus
5.3.4 Human immunodeficiency virus
5.3.5 Human papillomavirus
5.3.6 Polyomavirus
5.3.7 Herpes simplex virus
5.3.8 Parvovirus
5.3.9 Leporipoxvirus
5.3.10 Orthopoxvirus
5.4 Genetics of virus
5.5 Types of treatment
5.5.1 Immunotherapy
5.5.2 Chemotherapy
5.5.3 Targeted therapy
5.5.4 Radiation therapy
5.5.5 Hormonal therapy
5.5.6 Surgery
5.6 Stem cell transplant therapy
5.6.1 Oncotherapy
5.7 Future of oncotherapy
5.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
6 Multi-omics methods and tools in dissecting the oncovirus behavior in human host
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Definition
6.2 Types of omics
6.2.1 Genomics
6.2.2 Transcriptomics
6.2.3 Proteomics
6.2.3.1 Types of proteomics
6.2.3.1.1 Protein expression proteomics
6.2.3.1.2 Structural proteomics
6.2.3.1.3 Functional proteomics
6.2.3.2 Proteomic techniques
6.2.3.2.1 Chromatography
6.2.3.2.2 Mass spectroscopy
6.2.3.2.3 X-ray Crystallography
6.2.3.2.4 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
6.2.3.3 Computational process
6.2.4 Metabolomics
6.2.4.1 Metallomics
6.2.5 Bioinformatics resources
6.2.6 Databases and tools
6.3 Conclusions
References
7 Role of viral human oncogenesis: recent developments in molecular approaches
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Prevalence of oncovirus
7.3 Classification of oncovirus
7.3.1 DNA tumor viruses
7.3.2 RNA tumor viruses
7.4 Molecular tools used for oncovirus detection
7.5 Vaccines available for oncovirus
7.6 Statistical analysis of oncovirus
7.6.1 Epstein–Barr virus
7.6.2 Hepatitis B virus
7.6.3 Human papillomavirus
7.6.4 Hepatitis C virus
7.6.5 Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus
7.6.6 Human immunodeficiency virus
7.6.7 Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1
7.6.8 Merkel cell polyomavirus
7.7 Oncovirus and cancer progression
7.7.1 Human papillomavirus on cancer progression
7.7.2 Hepatitis B virus on cancer progression
7.7.3 Hepatitis C virus on cancer progression
7.7.4 Human papillomavirus on cancer progression
7.8 Oncolytic virotherapy
7.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
8 Strategies for the development of hepatitis B virus vaccines
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Virus-like particle-based hepatitis B vaccines
8.3 Therapeutic vaccines
8.4 DNA-based vaccines
8.5 mRNA-based vaccines
8.6 Proteins/peptides vaccines
8.7 Cell-based vaccines
8.8 Nanovaccines
8.9 Efficacy of therapeutic vaccines
8.10 Harmlessness
8.11 Immunization coverage
8.12 Conclusion
References
9 MYC oncogenes as potential anticancer targets
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biological role of MYC genes
9.3 MYC in normal tissues and cancer
9.4 MYC signal transduction pathway
9.5 Structure of MYC
9.6 The MYC–Max interaction
9.7 MYC as a potential target for antitumor therapy
9.8 Targeting the MYC–Max interaction with small molecule inhibitors
9.9 Indirect targeting of the MYC
9.10 Targeting MYC transcription
9.11 Targeting of MYC expression
9.12 Targeting MYC stability
9.13 Synthetic lethality with MYC
9.14 G-quadruplexes and expression of c-MYC
9.15 Conclusions and perspective
Acknowledgments
References
10 Current status of viral biomarkers for oncogenic viruses
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Epstein-Barr virus
10.2.1 Epstein-Barr virus-associated cancers
10.2.2 Epstein Bar virus-associated cancer biomarkers
10.3 Hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus
10.3.1 Hepatitis B virus- and hepatitis C virus-associated cancers
10.3.2 Hepatitis B virus-associated cancer biomarkers
10.3.3 Hepatitis C virus-associated cancer biomarkers
10.4 Human T-cell lymphotropic virus-1
10.4.1 HTLV-1-associated cancers
10.4.2 HTLV-1-associated cancer biomarkers
10.5 Human Herpesvirus-8
10.5.1 HHV-8-associated cancers
10.5.2 HHV-8-associated cancer biomarkers
10.6 Human papillomavirus
10.6.1 Human papillomaviruses-associated cancers
10.6.2 Human papillomaviruses-associated cancer biomarkers
10.7 Conclusions
References
11 Bioinformatics serving oncoviral studies
11.1 Biological database
11.2 Sequence analysis
11.3 Molecular dynamics simulations
11.4 Computer-aided drug discovery
11.5 Systems biology approach
11.6 Artificial intelligence approaches
11.7 Conclusion
References
12 QSAR approach for combating cancer cells
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Handling and curation of chemical and biological data
12.3 Structures drawing and database building
12.4 Molecular descriptors
12.5 Multivariate analysis
12.6 Multiple linear regression analysis
12.7 Principal component regression
12.8 Partial least squares
12.9 Kernel partial least squares
12.10 Artificial neural network
12.11 Other methods
12.12 Classification-based QSAR approaches
12.13 QSAR model generation
12.14 Model examination and validation
12.15 Internal validation
12.16 External validation
12.17 Applicability domain
12.18 Model application for the prediction of compounds activity
References
13 Human papillomaviruses and their carcinogens effect
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Epidemiology of human papillomaviruse
13.3 Human papillomaviruse classification
13.4 Human papillomavirus transmission
13.4.1 Vertical transmission
13.4.2 Horizontal transmission
13.5 Structure, genomic organization, and viral proteins
13.5.1 The long control region
13.5.2 The early region
13.5.2.1 E1
13.5.2.2 E2
13.5.2.3 E4
13.5.2.4 E5
13.5.2.5 E6
13.5.2.6 E7
13.5.2.7 E3 and E8
13.5.3 The late region: L1 and L2
13.6 Human papillomavirus replication cycle
13.7 Infection evolution
13.8 Molecular mechanisms of HPV-induced carcinogenesis
13.9 Mechanisms of cell transformation
13.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Progress in the development of vaccines against human papillomavirus
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Virus-like particle vaccination strategy
14.3 Vaccines prophylactic against human papillomavirus
14.3.1 Types of vaccines
14.4 Immunization procedures and doses
14.5 Efficacy and safety of human papillomavirus vaccines
14.5.1 Efficacy
14.5.2 Safety and security
14.6 L2-based human papillomavirus prophylactic vaccines
14.7 Human papillomavirus vaccine coverage
14.8 Factors influencing vaccination coverage
14.9 Therapeutic vaccines
14.9.1 Bacterial vector vaccines
14.9.2 Viral vector vaccines
14.9.3 Vaccinia virus
Efficacy and safety
14.9.4 DNA vaccines
14.9.5 RNA-based vaccines
14.9.6 Peptide-based vaccines
14.9.7 Protein vaccines
14.9.8 Cellular vaccines (Dendritic cell-based vaccines)
14.10 Conclusion
References
15 Development and characterization of an electrochemical sensor using molecularly imprinted polymer based on a gold screen...
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Urine and saliva as noninvasive sources of biomarkers
15.3 Biomarkers in the bloodstream can infiltrate the acini and eventually be secreted into the saliva
15.3.1 Recognition of particular compounds as an indicator of diseases
15.4 Current electrochemical sensor devices
15.5 Applications of gas sensors in oncology or virology as tools for the detection of biomarkers
15.6 Experimental
15.6.1 Chemicals and reagents
15.6.2 Polymer synthesis
15.6.3 Electrochemical sensors fabrication steps
15.6.3.1 Creatinine molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.6.3.2 Glucose molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.6.4 Physicochemical characterization
15.6.5 Electrochemical measurements
15.7 Results and discussion
15.7.1 Morphological characterization of the fabricated sensor
15.7.2 Voltammetric array and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy responses
15.7.2.1 Creatinine molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.7.2.2 Glucose molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.7.3 Repeatability, reproducibility, selectivity, and stability of the sensor
15.7.3.1 Creatinine molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.7.3.2 Glucose molecularly imprinted polymer sensor
15.7.4 Real samples detection
15.7.4.1 Creatinine detection in human urine
15.7.4.2 Glucose detection in human saliva
15.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Declaration of competing interest
References
16 Detection of triclosan and sodium lauryl sulfate in environmental samples and cosmetic product by electrochemical sensor...
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Wastewater as sources of micropollutants
16.1.2 Current electrochemical sensors for environmental residues
16.1.3 Potential sensors for applications in the fields of virology and oncology
16.1.4 Electronic nose technology
16.2 Experimental
16.2.1 Chemicals and reagents
16.2.2 Polymer synthesis
16.2.3 Electrochemical sensors fabrication steps
16.2.3.1 TCS-MIP sensor
16.2.3.2 SLS-MIP sensor
16.2.4 Surface morphotogical analysis
16.2.5 Electrochemical measurements
16.2.6 E-nose setup and measurement
16.3 Results and discussion
16.3.1 Morphological characterization of the fabricated sensors
16.3.1.1 TCS-MIP sensor
16.3.1.2 SLS-MIP sensor
16.3.2 Electrochemical characterization of the sensors’ fabrication stages
16.3.2.1 Electrochemical characterization: TCS-MIP sensor
16.3.2.2 Electrochemical characterization: SLS-MIP sensor
16.3.3 Reproducibility, selectivity, and stability of the sensor
16.3.3.1 Analytical parameters: TCS-MIP sensor
16.3.3.2 Analytical parameters: SLS-MIP sensor
16.3.4 Practical application
16.3.4.1 TCS detection by MIP in wastewater
16.3.4.2 TCS detection by e-nose in wastewater
16.3.4.3 SLS detection by MIP in cosmetic products
16.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Declaration of competing interest
Appendix A
References
Index
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