Oncogenic Viruses, Volume 1: Fundamentals of Oncoviruses

Front Cover
Oncogenic Viruses Volume 1
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 General introduction oncogenic viruses: recent knowledge
References
2 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with hepatitis B virus and environmental factors
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Hepatocellular carcinoma
2.2.1 Epidemiology and etiological factors
2.2.1.1 Incidence
2.2.2 Mortality
2.3 Anatomopathological characteristics
2.3.1 Physiopathology
2.3.2 Tumor pathology
2.4 Nature and history of liver carcinogenesis
2.5 Molecular mechanism of hepatocarcinogenesis
2.6 Hepatitis B virus
2.6.1 Epidemiology
2.7 Virological data
2.7.1 The viral structure
2.7.2 Hepatitis B virus genotypes
2.7.3 The hepatitis B virus replication cycle
2.8 Natural history of hepatitis B virus infection
2.9 Antiviral treatment for hepatitis B
2.10 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with hepatitis B virus
2.11 The link between hepatitis B virus and hepatic tumorigenesis
2.12 Molecular mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis induced by hepatitis B virus
2.13 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with environmental factors
2.14 Metabolic and environmental risk factors
2.14.1 Obesity, body mass index, and body fat
2.14.2 Hyperlipidemia
2.14.3 Diabetes
2.14.4 Tobacco
2.14.5 Alcohol
2.14.6 Lack of physical activity
2.15 Nutritional risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma
2.15.1 Aflatoxin
2.15.2 Red meats and processed meats
2.15.3 Lipids
2.15.4 Sugary drinks and juices
2.15.5 Vitamins and minerals
2.16 Prevention of risk factors
2.17 Synergy between hepatitis B virus and environmental factors in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma
2.18 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3 General principals and mechanisms of viral oncogenic and associated cancers (cytomegalovirus, papillomaviruses, and RNA o...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 General information on oncogenic viruses:cytomegalovirus, papillomaviruses, and RNA oncogenic virus
3.2.1 Cytomegalovirus
3.2.1.1 Classification
3.2.1.2 Epidemiology
3.2.1.3 Transmission
3.2.1.4 Structural organization
3.2.1.5 Replication cycle and replication steps
3.2.1.6 Relationship between cytomegalovirus and cancer
3.2.1.7 Virological diagnosis
3.2.1.7.1 DNA amplification reaction
3.2.1.7.2 Virus research by culture
3.2.1.7.3 Indirect diagnosis
3.2.1.8 Curative treatment (antivirals)
3.2.1.9 Prophylactic treatment
3.2.1.10 Viral pathology
3.2.1.10.1 Cytomegalovirus and cardiovascular pathology
3.2.1.10.2 Cytomegalovirus and pathology
3.2.2 Papillomavirus
3.2.2.1 Classification
3.2.2.2 Epidemiology of human papillomavirus
3.2.2.3 Transmission
3.2.2.4 Structural organization
3.2.2.5 Genomic organization
3.2.2.6 Viral cycle
3.2.2.7 Relationship between papillomaviruses and cancer
3.2.2.8 Preventive treatment (Vaccine)
3.2.2.9 Viral pathology
3.2.3 RNA oncogenic virus
3.2.3.1 Classification
3.2.3.2 Human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1
3.2.3.3 Epidemiology of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
3.2.3.4 Transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1
3.2.3.5 Diagnosis of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
3.2.3.6 Treatment of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
3.2.3.6.1 Adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma
3.2.3.6.2 HTLV-1-related tropical myelopathy and spastic paraparesis
3.2.3.7 Viral pathology
3.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 Infection of HPV and MMTV oncovirus in breast cancer tissues in women
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Infection with human papillomavirus
4.2.1 General information on human papillomavirus
4.2.1.1 History
4.2.1.2 Classification
4.2.1.3 Structure
4.2.1.4 Mode of transmission
4.2.1.5 Viral cycle
4.2.2 Integration of human papillomavirus into breast cells
4.2.2.1 Mode of contamination
4.2.2.2 Immune response
4.2.2.3 Hormonal response
4.2.2.4 Cellular response
4.2.2.5 Escape from immune response
4.2.3 Human papillomavirus cancer
4.2.3.1 Evolution of human papillomavirus infection
4.2.3.2 Human papillomavirus oncogenesis
4.2.3.3 Prevention of human papillomavirus infections
4.2.3.3.1 Effectiveness of human papillomavirus vaccination
4.3 Mouse mammary tumor virus infection
4.3.1 General information on mouse mammary tumor virus
4.3.1.1 History
4.3.1.2 Structure
4.3.1.3 Mode of transmission
4.3.1.4 Viral cycle
4.3.2 Integration of mouse mammary tumor virus into breast cells
4.3.2.1 Pathogenicity of the virus
4.3.2.2 Integrating mouse mammary tumor virus into the human genome
4.3.3 Cancer caused by mouse mammary tumor virus
4.3.3.1 Mouse mammary tumor virus infection in breast cells leading to cancer
4.3.3.2 Mouse mammary tumor virus and mammary tumorigenesis
4.4 Discussion
4.5 Conclusion
References
Further reading
5 MicroRNAs associated with Helicobacter pylori and Epstein-Barr virus infections in gastric cancer
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Discovery and origin of microRNAs
5.2.1 Discovery of the first microRNA: Lin-4
5.2.2 Nomenclature of microRNA
5.3 Biogenesis of microRNAs
5.3.1 MicroRNA genomic localization
5.3.2 Primary transcripts
5.3.3 Primary transcripts maturation
5.3.3.1 Pre-microRNA training
5.3.3.2 Nuclear export by Exportin 5
5.3.3.3 Cytoplasmic processing by dicer
5.3.3.4 Formation of the RNA-induced silencing complex
5.3.4 Mechanism of action of microRNAs
5.3.4.1 MicroRNA-mediated gene silencing via RNA-induced silencing complex containing miRNAs
5.3.4.2 Target mRNA translation repression
5.4 MicroRNAs in gastric cancer
5.4.1 Host microRNAs associated with Helicobacter pylori infection
5.4.2 Host microRNAs associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection
5.4.3 Epstein-Barr virus-encoded microRNAs
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Breast cancer: epidemiology and viral ethology associated with human papillomavirus and mouse mammary tumor virus
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Breast cancer epidemiology
6.2.1 In Africa
6.3 Risk factors for breast cancer
6.3.1 Gender
6.3.2 Personal history of breast cancer
6.3.3 Family history of breast cancer and other cancers
6.3.4 BRCA** gene mutations
6.3.5 Dense breasts
6.3.6 Some genetic disorders
6.3.7 Other genetic mutations
6.4 Human papillomaviruses and mouse mammary tumor virus in breast cancer
6.4.1 Human papillomavirus
6.4.1.1 The relationship between human papillomavirus and breast cancer
6.4.2 Mouse mammary tumor virus
6.4.2.1 The relationship between mouse mammary tumor virus and breast cancer
6.4.2.2 Superantigen expression
6.4.2.3 Mechanisms of mouse mammary tumor virus oncogenesis in human breast cancer
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Human papillomavirus infections and cervical cancer
7.1 Virology of human papillomavirus
7.1.1 Brief epidemiology and taxonomic classification
7.2 Molecular architecture of human papillomavirus and features of viral pro-oncogenes and oncoproteins
7.3 Infection cell cycle and replication
7.4 Transmission mode and risk factors
7.5 Pathophysiology, evolution, and natural history of human papillomavirus infection
7.6 Cervical cancer: a preventable disease
References
8 Covid-19 and cancer: impact on diagnosis, care and therapy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Coronavirus disease
8.2.1 Origin of COVID-19
8.2.1.1 Structure and genomic organization of SARS-CoV-2
8.2.1.2 SARS-CoV-2 viral cycle
8.2.1.3 Global epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection
8.3 Factors affecting the pathogenesis of the virus
8.3.1 Gender
8.3.2 Age
8.3.2.1 Impact of COVID-19 in cancer patients
8.3.2.2 Impact on cancer diagnosis
8.4 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer care
8.4.1 Chemotherapy
8.4.2 Surgery
8.4.3 Immunotherapy
8.5 The different types of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine
8.6 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in cancer patients
8.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
9 The role of DNA oncoviruses and its association with human cancer
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid
9.1.2 Gene
9.1.3 Cancer
9.1.4 Oncogenes
9.2 History, discovery, and types
9.3 Epidemiology
9.3.1 Epstein-Barr virus
9.3.2 Human papillomavirus
9.3.3 Hepatitis B virus
9.3.4 Hepatitis C virus
9.3.5 Human T cell lymphotropic virus 1
9.3.6 Human herpesvirus 8
9.3.7 Merkel cell polyomavirus
9.4 Viral proteins involved
9.5 General mechanism by which oncovirus induces cancer in DNA
9.6 Mechanism of action for each oncoviruses
9.6.1 Epstein-Barr virus
9.6.2 Human papillomavirus
9.6.3 Hepatitis B virus
9.6.4 Human herpesvirus 8
9.6.5 Merkel cell polyomavirus
9.7 Genome and structure of viruses
9.7.1 Epstein-Barr virus
9.7.2 Human herpesvirus 8
9.7.3 Human papillomavirus
9.7.4 Merkel cell polyomavirus
9.7.5 Hepatitis B virus
9.8 Cancers associated with DNA oncoviruses
9.9 Therapeutic options for DNA oncoviruses
9.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 RNA oncoviruses and their association with cancer implications
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Virus involvement in cancer
10.2 Oncoviruses and their variants
10.3 Timeline of oncoviruses
10.4 Endogenous and exogenous retroviruses
10.5 Viral carcinogenesis
10.6 Reverse transcription and recognition of proto-oncogenes
10.6.1 Reverse transcription
10.6.2 Proto-oncogene
10.7 Human T cell lymphotropic virus 1
10.7.1 HTLV-1 epidemiology and prevalence
10.7.2 HTLV-1 etiology
10.7.3 HTLV-1 pathophysiology
10.7.4 HTLV-1 transmission
10.7.5 HTLV-1 replication
10.7.6 HTLV-1 mechanism
10.7.7 HTLV diagnosis
10.8 Hepatitis C virus
10.8.1 Hepatitis C virus epidemiology and prevalence
10.8.2 HCV etiology
10.8.3 HCV pathophysiology
10.8.4 HCV transmission
10.8.5 Hepatitis C virus pathogenesis
10.8.6 Hepatitis C virus mechanism
10.8.7 Hepatitis C virus diagnosis
10.9 Human immunodeficiency virus
10.9.1 HIV epidemiology and prevalence
10.9.2 HIV etiology
10.9.3 HIV pathophysiology
10.9.4 HIV transmission
10.9.5 HIV replication
10.9.6 Mechanisms underlying HIV-1 pathogenicity in epithelial cells
10.9.7 HIV evaluation and diagnosis
10.10 Conclusion
Abbreviation
Acknowledgment
References
11 Evolution of viruses: tumor complications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Oncovirus and its prevalence
11.3 Epidemiology
11.4 Discovery of oncovirus and its timeline
11.5 Mechanism of oncovirus
11.6 Classification of oncoviruses
11.6.1 Epstein-Barr virus
11.6.1.1 Oncoproteins of Epstein-Barr virus
11.6.2 Hepatitis B virus
11.6.3 Human Herpesvirus 8
11.6.3.1 Human Herpesvirus-8-associated tumors
11.6.4 Human papillomavirus
11.6.5 Human T-cell lymphotropic virus 1
11.6.6 Hepatitis C virus
11.6.7 Merkel cell polyomavirus
11.7 Genes associated with oncogenes and virus tumor complications
11.7.1 Genes and their functions
11.7.1.1 E1A
11.7.1.2 E1B
11.7.1.3 BRCA1
11.7.1.4 BRCA2
11.7.1.5 TP53
11.8 Causes and prevention
11.9 Therapies and treatment
11.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12 HPV oncovirus: molecular biology and mechanism of action
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Recent progress
12.3 Discussion
References
13 Oncogenic viruses and mechanism of oncogenesis: study of oncogenic characteristics of HTLV-1 and HHV-8 viruses
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Discovery of oncogenic viruses
13.1.2 The infections concerned
13.1.3 Consequences of viral infection
13.1.4 The molecular basis of cancer
13.1.5 Gene families involved in carcinogenesis
13.1.5.1 Oncogenes
13.1.6 Tumor suppressor or antioncogene genes
13.1.7 Oncogenic viruses
13.2 Molecular aspects of human herpesvirus 8 and associated tumors
13.2.1 Human herpesvirus 8 oncogenic viral genes and tumorigenesis
13.2.2 HHV-8-related diseases
13.3 Molecular aspects of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 and associated tumors
13.3.1 HTLV-1 oncogenic viral genes and tumorigenesis
13.3.2 Diseases associated with HTLV-1
13.4 Conclusion
References
14 Hepatitis C virus and hepatocellular carcinoma
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 The life cycle of the hepatitis C virus
14.2 The drug target of hepatitis C virus
14.3 Progression from hepatitis C virus to hepatocellular carcinoma
14.4 Hepatocellular carcinoma
14.5 Drugs and drug targets in hepatocellular carcinoma
14.6 Diagnosis of hepatitis C virus
14.7 Tests for liver damage
14.7.1 Hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and treatment
14.8 Conclusion
References
15 Prostate cancer and viral infections: epidemiological and clinical indications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Prostate cancer: clinical aspects
15.2.1 Prostate cancer detection, diagnosis, and staging
15.2.2 Prostate cancer epidemiology worldwide
15.3 Viral Infections as a risk factor for prostate cancer
15.3.1 Mouse mammary tumor virus
15.3.2 Human papillomavirus and prostate cancer
References
16 Oncogenic human virus associated with prostate cancer: molecular epidemiology of Human Papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 History, taxonomy, and classification of human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus
16.1.2 Molecular epidemiology of HPV and EBV associated with prostate cancer worldwide
16.1.3 Epidemiology of prostate cancer worldwide
16.1.4 Human papillomavirus and prostate cancer
16.1.5 Epstein-Barr virus
16.1.6 Epidemiology of human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus coinfection
16.1.7 Implications and associations between HPV and EBV prostate cancer
16.1.8 Coinfection with HPV and EBV
16.2 Conclusion
References
17 Epidemiology of gynecological and mammary cancers in Africa: viral etiology and risk factors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Generalities about cancer
17.2.1 The definition of cancer
17.2.2 The origin of cancer cells
17.2.3 Carcinogenesis
17.2.4 Gynecological and mammary cancers
17.2.4.1 Breast cancer
17.2.4.1.1 Oncogenesis of breast cancer
17.2.4.2 Cervical cancer
17.2.4.2.1 Oncogenesis of cervical cancer
17.2.4.3 Ovarian cancer
17.2.4.4 Endometrial cancer
17.2.4.5 Vulvar cancer
17.2.4.6 Vaginal cancer
17.3 Epidemiology of gynecomammary cancers in Africa
17.3.1 Gynecomammary cancers in different continents
17.3.2 Gynecomammary cancer in Africa
17.3.3 Incidence and deaths linked to gynecomammary cancers in North Africa
17.3.3.1 The top ten cancers in Northern Africa
17.3.4 Incidence and mortality rates of gynecomammary cancers in North Africa
17.4 Overview of the molecular oncogenesis of gynecomammary cancer
17.5 Oncoviruses associated with gynecomammary cancer
17.5.1 Human papillomavirus
17.5.2 Human mammary tumor virus
17.5.3 Epstein-Barr virus
17.5.3.1 Generalities
17.5.4 Adenoviruses
17.5.4.1 Generalities about adenoviruses
17.5.5 Human polyomaviruses
17.5.5.1 Generalities about human polyomaviruses
17.5.5.1.1 JC virus
17.5.5.1.2 BK virus
17.5.5.1.3 Merkel cell polyomavirus
Acknowledgments
References
18 Involvement of BK polyomavirus in genitourinary cancers
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Polyomaviridae family
18.2.1 History of discovery
18.3 BK polyomavirus
18.3.1 Epidemiology
18.3.2 Modes of transmission
18.3.3 Virological characteristics
18.3.4 Structure of the viral particle
18.3.5 The viral capsid
18.3.6 Genomic organization of BK polyomavirus
18.3.7 Risk factors
18.4 Involvement of BK in genitourinary cancer
18.4.1 The prostate
18.4.2 The bladder
18.5 The kidney
18.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
19 Kidney cancer associated with Epstein-Barr virus
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Epstein-Barr virus
19.2.1 Morphology
19.2.1.1 The Epstein-Barr virus family
19.2.1.2 Transmission mode
19.2.1.3 Risk factors
19.2.1.4 Viral structure
19.2.1.5 Genomic organization
19.2.1.6 Viral replication
19.2.1.7 Target cells
19.3 The association between kidney cancer and Epstein-Barr virus
19.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
20 The involvement of human papillomavirus in breast cancer in general and the different prognostic biomarkers in triple-ne...
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Anatomy of the mammary gland
20.3 Epidemiology
20.4 Human papillomavirus
20.4.1 Route of human papillomavirus infection
20.4.2 Association between human papillomavirus infection and breast cancer
20.5 Triple-negative breast cancer
20.5.1 Epidemiology
20.5.2 TP53 gene, p53 protein, and Ki-67
20.5.3 Epidermal growth factor receptor, c-KIT, and cytokeratins (CK 5/6, CK 14, CK 17, CK 56)
20.5.4 Vascular endothelial growth factor
20.5.5 Androgen receptor
20.5.5.1 Homologous recombination defect and BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations
20.5.5.2 In situ hybridization of the mRNA
20.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
21 Hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes associated with Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr virus infections in gast...
21.1 Introduction
21.2 DNA methylation in gastric carcinogenesis
21.3 Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
21.3.1 Helicobacter pylori inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
21.3.2 Helicobacter pylori inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes via chronic inflammation
21.3.3 Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
21.4 Helicobacter pylori coinfection with Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation
21.5 Conclusion
References
22 Etiology of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer and infection mechanism
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Human papillomavirus cervical cancer risk factors
22.3 Viral etiology of cervical cancer
22.4 Biology of papillomavirus
22.4.1 Structural and genomic organization of human papillomavirus
22.4.2 Viral Infection and expression of viral oncoproteins
22.4.2.1 Viral cycle of human papillomaviruses
22.4.2.1.1 The encounter and attachment of the virus and the target cell
22.4.2.1.2 Entry and decapsidation
22.4.2.1.3 Expression of viral genes and amplification of the viral genome
22.4.2.1.4 Assembly and release of newly formed virions
22.5 Interaction between E6 and p53 in the cancer pathway
22.5.1 P53 and cell cycle control
22.6 Consequences of the E6 and p53 interaction
22.7 Interaction between E7 and pRb in the cancer pathway
22.8 Assessment of the joint action of oncoproteins E6 and E7
22.9 Vaccination is a way to fight against cervical cancer
22.10 Conclusion
References
23 In vivo gene therapy with p53 or p21 adenovirus for prostate cancer
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Protein P53
23.2.1 History
23.2.2 P53 a gatekeeper
23.2.3 Structure of the P53 protein
23.2.4 Regulation of P53
23.2.4.1 Phosphorylation of P53
23.2.4.2 Acetylation of P53
23.2.4.3 Ubiquitination of P53
23.2.4.4 Other Modifications of P53
23.2.4.5 Interaction of P53 –MDM2
23.2.5 Cellular localization
23.2.6 The functions of P53
23.3 Cell cycle arrest
23.3.1 Cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase
23.3.2 Cell cycle arrest in the G2 phase
23.3.2.1 Apoptosis
23.3.2.2 Extracellular signaling
23.4 Protein P21
23.4.1 P21 and cancer
23.5 Adenovirus
23.5.1 Nomenclature
23.5.2 Structure of adenovirus
23.5.3 Attachment and entry of the virus into the host cell
23.5.4 Early gene transcription
23.5.5 Genome replication
23.6 In vivo gene therapy with P53 or P21 adenovirus for prostate cancer
23.7 Conclusion
References
Index
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