Ocean Studies: Introduction to Oceanography 4th Ed

Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Ocean Studies and Pedagogy
Acknowledgments
IC. Introductory Chapter
IC.1 Why the Ocean is Important to Us?
IC.1.1 Biological Resources
IC.1.1.1 Fisheries
IC.1.1.2 Other Biological Resources
IC.1.2 Transportation, Trade, and Military Use
IC.1.3 Offshore Oil and Gas
IC 1.4 Methane Hydrates
IC.1.5 Minerals and Freshwater
IC.1.6 Recreation, Aesthetics, and Endangered Species
IC.1.7 Energy
IC.1.8 Waste Disposal
IC.2 The Ocean and the Origins of Life
IC.3 The Ocean and Earth’s Environment
IC.4 Humans and the Ocean
1. The Ocean in the Earth System
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Earth as a System
1.2.1 Hydrosphere
1.2.2 Atmosphere
1.2.3 Geosphere
1.2.4 Biosphere
1.3 The Ocean in the Global Water Cycle
1.4 Observing the Ocean
1.4.1 In situ Monitoring of the Ocean’s Depths
1.4.2 Remote Sensing by Satellite
1.5 Modeling the Ocean
2. Ocean Basins and Plate Tectonics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Distribution of the World Ocean
2.3 Oceanic Crust and Continental Crust
2.4 Plate Tectonics and Ocean Basin Features
2.4.1 Evidence for Plate Tectonics
2.4.2 Divergent Plate Boundaries
2.4.3 Convergent Plate Boundaries
2.4.4 Transform Plate Boundaries
2.4.5 Mantle Convection and Sea Level
2.4.6 Hot Spots
2.4.7 Hydrothermal Vents
2.5 Ocean Bottom Profile
2.5.1 Continental Margins
2.6 Spreading and Closing Cycles
3. Properties of Ocean Water
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Unique Water Molecule and its Hydrogen Bond
3.3 Physical Properties of Ocean Water
3.3.1 Heat Properties
3.3.2 Density
3.3.3 Pressure
3.3.4 Sound Transmission
3.4 Chemical Properties of Seawater
3.4.1 Water as a Solvent
3.4.2 Salinity
3.4.3 Residence Time
3.4.4 Variations in Salinity
3.4.5 Dissolved Gases
3.4.6 Seawater pH and Ocean Acidification
4. The Atmosphere and Ocean
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Weather and Climate
4.3 Heating and Cooling Earth’s Surface
4.3.1 Solar Radiation
4.3.2 Solar Radiation Budget
4.3.3 Solar Radiation and the Ocean
4.3.4 Infrared Radiation and the Greenhouse Effect
4.4 Heating Imbalances: Earth’s Surface versus Atmosphere
4.4.1 Latent Heating
4.4.2 Sensible Heating
4.5 Heating Imbalances: Tropics versus High Latitudes
4.5.1 Heat Transport by Ocean Circulation
4.5.2 Heat Transport by Air Mass Exchange
4.5.3 Heat Transport by Storms
4.6 Meridional Overturning Circulation
4.7 Circulation of the Atmosphere: The Forces
4.7.1 Pressure Gradient Force
4.7.2 Coriolis Effect
4.8 Circulation of the Atmosphere: Patterns of Motion
4.8.1 Planetary-Scale Circulation
4.8.2 Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems
5. Ocean Currents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Ocean’s Vertical Structure
5.3 Ocean in Motion: The Forces
5.3.1 Ekman Transport
5.3.2 Upwelling and Downwelling
5.4 Wind-Driven Surface Currents
5.4.1 Gyres
5.4.2 Equatorial Currents
5.4.3 Boundary Currents
5.4.4 Ocean Eddies
5.5 Monitoring the Ocean Depths
5.6 Large-Scale Ocean Circulation
5.6.1 Formation of Deep Water
5.6.2 Water Mass
5.6.3 Implications for Climate
6. Ocean Waves and Tides
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Water Waves
6.2.1 Wind-Wave Generation
6.2.2 Deep-Water and Shallow-Water Waves
6.2.3 Seiche
6.2.4 Wave Mediated Atmosphere-Ocean Transfer
6.3 Internal Waves
6.4 Ocean Tides
6.4.1 Tide-Generating Forces
6.4.2 Types of Tides
6.4.3 Tides in Ocean Basins
6.4.4 Tidal Currents
6.4.5 Observing and Predicting Tides
6.4.6 Open-Ocean Tides
6.4.7 Power Generation from Ocean Waves and Tides
6.5 The Tsunami Hazard
7. The Dynamic Coast
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Coastline Formation
7.3 Coastal Features
7.3.1 Beaches
7.3.2 Barrier Islands
7.3.3 Rip Currents
7.3.4 Tidal Wetlands
7.3.5 Human Alterations
7.4 Estuaries
7.5 Coastal Storms
7.6 Tropical Cyclone Characteristics
7.6.1 Hurricane Hazards
7.6.2 Tropical Cyclone Development
7.7 Extratropical Cyclones
8. Marine Ecosystems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Requirements for Marine Life
8.3 Structure of Marine Ecosystems
8.3.1 Marine Microbes
8.3.2 Producers
8.3.3 Consumers
8.3.4 Decomposers
8.3.5 Viruses
8.3.6 Tropic Structure of Ecosystems
8.3.7 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
8.4 Ecosystem Processes
8.4.1 Energy for Growth and Reproduction
8.4.2 Production in the Photic Zone
8.4.3 Nutrients and Trace Elements as Limiting Factors
8.5 Ocean’s Role in the Global Carbon Cycle
8.5.1 Physical Pump
8.5.2 Biological Pump
8.6 Ecosystem Observations and Models
9. Life in the Ocean
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Marine Habitats
9.2.1 Oceanic Life Zones
9.2.2 Pelagic and Benthic Environments
9.3 Marine Animals
9.3.1 Invertebrates
9.3.2 Fishes
9.3.2.1 Agnathans
9.3.2.2 Cartilaginous Fishes
9.3.2.3 Bony Fishes
9.3.3 Marine Mammals
9.3.4 Marine Reptiles
9.3.5 Seabirds
9.4 Life Strategies and Adaptations
9.4.1 Buoyancy
9.4.2 Light and Vision
9.4.3 Sound
9.4.4 Feeding Strategies
9.4.5 Reproduction
9.4.6 Associations
9.5 Life in Selected Marine Environments
9.5.1 Intertidal Zone
9.5.2 Sea Grass Beds and Salt Marshes
9.5.3 Kelp Forests
9.5.4 Life On and In the Deep Ocean Floor
9.5.5 Hydrothermal Vent Systems
10. The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Climate Variability
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Earth’s Climate System
10.2.1 Climate Controls
10.2.2 Role of the Ocean
10.3 El Niño-Southern Oscillation
10.3.1 Neutral Conditions in the Tropical Pacific
10.3.2 El Niño, the Warm Phase
10.3.3 La Niña, the Cold Phase
10.3.4 Predicting and Monitoring El Niño and La Niña
10.3.4.1 Frequency of El Niño and La Niña
10.4 Other Atmosphere-Ocean Oscillations
10.4.1 North Atlantic Oscillation
10.4.2 Arctic Oscillation
10.4.3 Pacific Decadal Oscillation
10.4.4 Madden-Julian Oscillation
11. Ocean Sediments
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification of Ocean Sediments
11.2.1 Classification by Grain Size
11.2.2 Classification by Particle Source
11.2.2.1 Lithogenous Sediment
11.2.2.2 Biogenous Sediment
11.2.2.3 Hydrogenous Sediment
11.2.2.4 Cosmogenous Sediment
11.3 Ocean Sediment Deposits
11.3.1 Particle Transport and Settling
11.3.2 Continental-Margin Deposits
11.3.3 Deep-Ocean Deposits
11.4 Distribution of Surface Sediments
11.5 Ocean Sediment Stratigraphy
12. The Ocean and Climate Change
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Climate Record
12.3 Factors Contributing to Climate Change
12.3.1 Solar Variability
12.3.1.1 Sunspots
12.3.2 Earth’s Orbit
12.3.3 Plate Tectonics
12.3.4 Volcanoes
12.3.5 Earth’s Surface Properties
12.3.6 Human Activity
12.4 Reconstructing Past Climate Conditions
12.4.1 Proxy Records
12.4.2 Instrument-based Temperature Record
12.5 The Climate Future
12.5.1 Global Climate Models
12.5.2 Search for Cycles and Analogs
12.5.2.1 Methane Hydrates and Climate Change
12.5.3 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
12.5.4 Climate Sensitivity
12.6 Consequences of Global Warming
12.6.1 Warming Ocean
12.6.2 Shrinking Ice Sheets
12.6.3 Shrinking Arctic Ocean Ice Cover
12.6.4 Rising Sea Level
12.6.5 Ocean Acidification
12.6.6 Deoxygenation
12.6.7 Marine Life
13. Ocean Exploration: Past and Present
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Investigating the Ocean
13.2.1 Voyages of Exploration
13.2.2 Voyages for Science
13.3 Modern Ocean Studies
13.3.1 Technological Innovations
13.3.2 Remote Sensing
13.3.3 Scientific Ocean Drilling
13.3.4 Ships of Opportunity
13.3.5 International Cooperation
13.3.6 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
13.3.7 Aerial Drones
13.3.8 Tags
13.3.9 Towed Instruments
13.3.10 Buoys
13.3.11 Ocean Observatories
13.3.12 Computers and Numerical Models
14. Ocean Stewardship
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Stewardship of the Ocean
14.3 Adverse Effects of Human Activities
14.3.1 Interference with Photosynthesis and Respiration
14.3.2 Habitat Alteration
14.3.3 Community Structure Alteration
14.3.4 Contamination of Seafood
14.3.5 Beach Closures and Aesthetic Losses
14.3.6 Toxic Substances
14.3.6.1 Evaluating Toxicity
14.3.6.2 Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Toxins
14.4 Reversing the Decline of Estuaries
14.5 Fisheries and Sustainable Exploitation
14.5.1 Overfishing
14.5.2 Maximum Sustainable Yield
14.5.3 Ecologically Sustainable Yield
14.5.4 Bycatch
14.5.5 Restoring Fisheries
14.5.6 Recreational Fisheries
14.6 Protecting Endangered Marine Species
14.6.1 Sea Turtles
14.6.2 Marine Mammals
14.6.2.1 Whales
14.6.2.2 Manatees
14.6.2.3 Sea Lions
14.6.2.4 Polar Bears
14.6.2.5 Sea Otters
14.6.3 Seabirds
14.7 Aquaculture
14.8 Marine Exotic Species
15. Ocean and Climate Policy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Milestones in Ocean Governance
15.2.1 Freedom of the Seas
15.2.2 Law of the Sea Treaty
15.2.2.1 Exclusive Economic Zones and Extended Continental Shelf Rights
15.2.3 Antarctic Treaty
15.2.4 Coastal Zone Management
15.3 Global Policy in Response to Climate Change
15.3.1 Mitigation
15.3.1.1 Fossil Fuel Alternatives
15.3.1.2 Geoengineering
15.4 Obstacles to Ocean Policy Making
Glossary
Appendix I. Conversion Factors
Appendix II. Ocean Timeline