Nuclear Waste Management: Science, Technology, and Policy

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 The Nuclear Waste Problem
1.2 Brief Overview of Nuclear Waste Generation
1.3 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 2: Policy and Regulations for Nuclear Waste Management
2.1 Role of Policy
2.2 How Policy Is Made
2.2.1 Agenda Setting
2.2.2 Policy Formulation
2.2.3 Policy Adoption
2.2.4 Policy Implementation
2.2.5 Policy Evaluation
2.2.6 Policy Change
2.2.7 Policy Termination
2.3 Policy Analysis and Decision-Making Models
2.3.1 Policy Analysis
2.3.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis
2.3.3 Decision Analysis
2.4 Development of Laws, Standards, and Regulations
2.4.1 National Law
2.4.1.1 What Is Nuclear Waste (Q1)?
2.4.1.2 Who Are Responsible for the Management of Nuclear Waste (Q2)?
2.4.2 Regulations and Standards
2.4.2.1 How Safe Is Safe? What Is the Acceptable Level of Risk (Q3)?
De Minimis Risk
Comparative Risk Approach
Risk Benefit Analysis
Comparative Observations
2.4.2.2 Who Should Be Protected (Q4)?
2.4.2.3 How Long Should the Prescribed Level of Safety Be Provided (Q5)?
2.4.2.4 What Approach Should Be Used to Assure Safety (Q6)?
2.4.2.5 How Do We Verify Safety (Q7)?
2.4.2.6 How Should the Environment Be Protected in Comparison with Protecting Public Health (Q8)?
2.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 3: Basic Nuclear Science and Engineering
3.1 Science of Radiation
3.1.1 What Is Radiation and Why Is It Produced?
3.1.2 Ionizing Radiation
3.1.3 Types and Characteristics of Ionizing Radiation
3.1.4 Natural Radioactivity
3.1.5 Man-Made Production of Radioactivity
3.1.6 General Description of Radioactive Decay
3.1.7 Decay Chains
3.2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter
3.2.1 Directly or Indirectly Ionizing Radiation
3.2.2 Interaction of Directly Ionizing Radiation with Matter
3.2.3 Interaction of Indirectly Ionizing Radiation
3.2.3.1 Cross Sections
3.2.3.2 Interactions of Photons with Matter
3.2.3.3 Interactions of Neutrons with Matter
3.3 Nuclear Reactors
3.3.1 Types of Nuclear Reactors
3.3.2 Fuel for Nuclear Reactors
3.3.3 The Process of Fission in Thermal Nuclear Reactors
3.3.4 Products of Nuclear Fission
3.3.5 Nuclear Criticality Control
3.4 Conclusion
Homework
Further Readings
References
Chapter 4: Basic Chemical Science for Nuclear Waste Management
4.1 Chemical Properties
4.1.1 Electron Energy Levels
4.1.2 Types of Elements and the Periodic Table
4.1.3 Chemical Bonds
4.2 Basics of Chemical Reactions
4.2.1 Free Energy in Chemical Reactions
4.2.2 Equilibrium Constant
4.3 Types of Chemical Reactions
4.3.1 Acid-Base Reactions
4.3.1.1 The Concept of pH
4.3.2 Dissolution-Precipitation Reactions
4.3.3 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
4.3.3.1 Basic Definitions
4.3.3.2 Half-Reactions
4.3.3.3 Log of Electron Activity ``pe´´ and Oxidation (``Redox´´) Potential
4.3.3.4 Measurements of Oxidation Potential
4.3.4 Complexation Reactions
4.3.5 Sorption
4.3.6 Biodegradation of Organic Matter
4.3.7 Role of Temperature
4.4 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 5: Science of Risk and Radiation Protection
5.1 Biological Effects of Radiation
5.1.1 Interaction Mechanisms in a Biological System
5.1.2 Stages in Radiation Interaction with Biological Systems
5.1.3 Interactions of Radiation with Biological Targets
5.1.3.1 Interactions of Different Particles in Tissues
5.1.3.2 Factors Influencing Biological Effects
5.1.3.3 Targets of Radiation Interactions
5.1.4 Radiation Effects on DNA
5.1.4.1 DNA Damage
5.1.4.2 DNA Repair Mechanism
5.1.5 Radiation Effects on Cells
5.1.5.1 Cell Killing
5.1.5.2 Induction of Mutations
5.1.5.3 Malignant Transformation of Cells
5.2 Risk Assessment of Radiation Exposure
5.2.1 Cancer Risk Estimation for Human Radiation Exposure
5.2.2 Calculation of Dose
5.2.2.1 The Absorbed Dose
5.2.2.2 The Equivalent Dose
5.2.2.3 The Effective Dose
5.2.2.4 The Collective Dose
5.2.3 Dose Response Relationships
5.2.4 Relation Between Cancer by Natural Incidence and Radiation Induced Cancer
5.2.5 Cancer Risk Estimation in BEIR V and BEIR VII
5.2.5.1 BEIR V Results
5.2.5.2 BEIR VII Results
5.2.5.3 Comparisons of the Estimated Cancer Risk Coefficients
5.3 Development of Standards for Radiation Protection
5.4 Radiation Safety Applications
5.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 6: Generation of Nuclear Waste from Nuclear Power
6.1 Overview of Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.2 The Steps in Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.2.1 Mining
6.2.2 Milling
6.2.3 Conversion
6.2.4 Enrichment
6.2.5 Fuel Fabrication
6.2.6 Nuclear Reactor Operations
6.2.6.1 In-Core Fuel Management
6.2.6.2 Production of Radioactivity from Reactor Operation
6.2.7 Reprocessing
6.3 Material Balance in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.4 Waste Generation and Release of Radioactivity from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.4.1 Wastes from the Front-End of Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.4.2 Wastes from Reactor Operation
6.4.3 Wastes from Reprocessing
6.4.4 Classification of Radioactive Waste
6.4.5 Overall Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Fuel Cycles
6.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 7: Characteristics of Spent Fuel and Its Storage and Transportation
7.1 Characteristics of Spent Fuel
7.1.1 General Characteristics of Spent Fuel
7.1.2 Nuclide Compositions of Spent Fuel
7.1.3 Determining Nuclide Concentrations in Spent Fuel
7.1.4 Decay Heat Production in Spent Fuel
7.1.4.1 Decay Heat Calculation
7.1.4.2 Correlation Models for Decay Heat Calculation
7.2 Shielding for Spent Nuclear Fuel
7.2.1 Analysis for Gamma Ray Shielding
7.2.2 Analysis for Neutron Shielding
7.2.3 An Example of Spent Fuel Shielding
7.2.4 Major Radionuclides of Concern in Spent Fuel Shielding
7.3 Criticality Control in Spent Fuel Management
7.4 Storage of Spent Fuel
7.4.1 Wet Storage
7.4.2 Dry Storage
7.4.2.1 Options in Dry Storage
7.4.2.2 Cost of Dry Storage Options
7.4.2.3 The Issue of Storage Periods
7.4.3 Monitored Retrievable Storage (MRS)
7.5 Spent Fuel Transportation
7.5.1 Shipping Casks
7.5.2 Safety in Spent Fuel Shipment
7.5.2.1 Risk from Incident-Free Shipment
7.5.2.2 Risk from Accident During Shipment
7.6 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 8: Spent Fuel Reprocessing and Nuclear Waste Transmutation
8.1 Overview of Reprocessing
8.1.1 Aqueous Processes
8.1.2 Pyro-processes
8.1.3 History of Spent Fuel Reprocessing
8.1.4 Comparison of PUREX and Pyroprocessing
8.2 PUREX
8.2.1 The Overall PUREX Process
8.2.2 Pre-processing Storage
8.2.3 Head-end Process
8.2.4 Separation Processes
8.2.5 Off-gas Treatment
8.2.6 Implementation of PUREX
8.2.7 Treatment of HLW for Stabilization
8.2.7.1 Calcination
8.2.7.2 Vitrification
8.2.8 Modifications of PUREX
8.3 Pyroprocessing
8.3.1 Electrochemical Cell as the Separation System
8.3.2 Head-end Process and Oxide Reduction
8.3.3 Electrorefining
8.3.4 Cathode Processing and Waste Treatment
8.4 Transmutation
8.4.1 Transmutation Half-life
8.4.2 Implementation of Transmutation
8.4.2.1 Thermal Reactors
8.4.2.2 Fast Reactors
8.4.2.3 Mixed-spectrum Reactor Concept
8.4.2.4 Accelerator Driven Transmutation Systems
8.4.3 Perspectives on Transmutation
8.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 9: Engineered Barriers for Nuclear Waste Management
9.1 Basics of Engineering Materials
9.1.1 Introduction to Materials for Engineering Applications
9.1.2 Overview of Materials Properties
9.1.2.1 Mechanical Properties
9.1.2.2 Physical Properties
9.1.2.3 Chemical Properties
9.1.3 Atomic Bonding and Material Properties
9.1.4 Atomic Arrangement and Material Properties
9.1.4.1 Crystal Structures and Material Properties
9.1.4.2 Non-crystalline vs. Crystalline Solids
9.1.4.3 Treatments of Metals for Property Modification
9.1.5 Radiation Effects on Materials
9.1.5.1 Effects of Low LET Radiation
9.1.5.2 Effects of High LET Radiation
9.1.5.3 Effects on Gases or Liquids
9.2 Nuclear Waste Package as Engineered Barriers
9.2.1 Design of Nuclear Waste Package
9.2.2 Predictability of Materials Performance for the Nuclear Waste Package
9.2.2.1 Mechanistic Model Development
9.2.2.2 Characterization of the Environment
9.2.3 Fabrication and Monitoring of Nuclear Waste Package
9.3 Spent Fuel as Waste Form
9.3.1 Irradiation Induced Changes in UO2
9.3.2 Irradiation-Induced Changes in the Cladding
9.3.3 Radionuclide Release from Spent Fuel
9.4 Materials for Waste Immobilization
9.4.1 Glass
9.4.1.1 Characteristics of Glass as Waste Form
9.4.1.2 Compositions of Glass as Waste Form
9.4.1.3 Stability of Glass as Waste Form
9.4.2 Ceramic
9.4.2.1 Compositions of Ceramics as Waste Form
9.4.2.2 Stability of Ceramics as Waste Form
9.4.3 Cement
9.4.3.1 Characteristics of Cement as Waste Form
9.4.3.2 Compositions of Cement as Waste Form
9.4.3.3 Stability of Cement as Waste Form
9.4.4 Polymers
9.4.4.1 Characteristics of Polymers as Waste Form
9.4.4.2 Compositions of Polymers as Waste Form
9.4.4.3 Stability of Polymers as Waste Form
9.4.5 Comparisons of Materials for Waste Immobilization
9.4.6 Modeling Waste Form Leaching
9.4.6.1 Release by Diffusion
9.4.6.2 Release by Dissolution
9.5 Corrosion of Metals
9.5.1 Basic Understanding of Corrosion
9.5.1.1 Corrosion Cell
9.5.1.2 Passivity
9.5.1.3 Pourbaix (Eh-pH) Diagrams
9.5.2 Uniform Corrosion
9.5.2.1 The Pilling-Bedworth Ratio
9.5.2.2 Quantitative Description of Oxide Product Development Under Uniform Corrosion
9.5.3 Localized Corrosion
9.5.3.1 Pitting Corrosion and Crevice Corrosion
9.5.3.2 Intergranular Corrosion
9.5.4 Environment Assisted Cracking - Stress Corrosion Cracking
9.5.5 Galvanic Corrosion
9.5.6 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
9.6 Candidate Materials for Waste Containers
9.6.1 Carbon Steel
9.6.1.1 Types and Use of Carbon Steel
9.6.1.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Carbon Steel
9.6.2 Stainless Steel
9.6.2.1 Types and Uses of Stainless Steels
9.6.2.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Stainless Steels
9.6.3 Copper
9.6.3.1 Types and Uses of Copper
9.6.3.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Copper
9.6.4 Titanium Alloys
9.6.4.1 Types and Uses of Titanium Alloys
9.6.4.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Titanium Alloys
9.6.5 Nickel-Based Alloys
9.6.5.1 Types and Uses of Nickel-Based Alloys
9.6.5.2 Chemical Degradation Characteristics of Nickel-Based Alloys
9.7 Backfills and Seals
9.7.1 Bentonite Clay in Water Saturated Repository
9.7.2 Backfills in Water Unsaturated Repository
9.7.3 Shaft Seals/Grouts
9.8 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 10: Geological Barriers for Disposal of Nuclear Waste
10.1 Methods Considered for Permanent Disposition of Nuclear Waste
10.1.1 Disposal in the Ocean
10.1.2 Disposal in Ice Sheets
10.1.3 Disposal in the Space (Extraterrestrial Disposal)
10.1.4 Surface Disposal
10.1.5 Disposal in Geological Formations
10.1.5.1 Deep Boreholes
10.1.5.2 Deep Well Injection
10.1.5.3 Injection Through Rock Melting
10.1.5.4 Geologic Disposal on Small, Uninhabited Islands
10.1.5.5 Mined Geological Repositories
10.2 Host Medium of Geological Disposal
10.2.1 Rock-Forming Minerals
10.2.1.1 Silicate Minerals
10.2.1.2 Clay Minerals
10.2.1.3 Other Minerals
10.2.2 Formation and Properties of Rocks
10.2.2.1 Rock Types
10.2.2.2 Chemical Properties of Rocks
10.2.2.3 Physical Properties of Rock
10.3 Candidate Rock Types for Geological Repository
10.3.1 Granite
10.3.2 Salt
10.3.3 Clay/Shale
10.3.4 Basalt
10.3.5 Tuff
10.3.6 Comparisons of Rocks
10.4 Development of Geological Repository
10.4.1 Site Evaluation
10.4.2 Site Selection
10.4.3 Site Characterization
10.4.4 Facility Construction
10.4.5 Facility Operation and Site Closure
10.4.6 Post-closure Period
10.5 Consideration of Thermal Limits in Geological Repository Design
10.5.1 Thermal Design Limits
10.5.2 Implementation of Thermal Design Limits
10.6 Status of Geological Repository Development
10.7 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 11: Movements of Radionuclides in Groundwater
11.1 Groundwater System
11.1.1 Groundwater as Water Body in Hydrologic Cycle
11.1.2 Groundwater Systems
11.2 Describing Groundwater Flow
11.2.1 Hydraulic Head and Direction of Groundwater Movement
11.2.1.1 Hydraulic Head
11.2.2 Darcy´s Law
11.2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity
11.2.4 Physical Properties of Soil
11.2.5 Hydraulic Head Mapping Using Field Measurements
11.2.6 Estimating Hydraulic Head Distributions Using Groundwater Flow Equation
11.2.7 Homogeneity and Isotropy of Aquifer
11.2.8 Flow Lines and Flow Nets
11.2.8.1 Calculation of Transmissivity Distributions in a Stream Tube
11.2.8.2 Calculation of Travel Time
11.2.8.3 Calculation of Flow in a Flow Net
11.2.9 Groundwater Flow in Fractured Rock
11.2.10 Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone
11.2.10.1 Physical and Hydrological Properties of the Unsaturated Zone
11.2.10.2 Modeling Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone
11.2.10.3 Steady Infiltration Case
11.2.10.4 Approximate Approaches to Quantify Hydraulic Conductivity and Moisture Content
Soil Moisture Contents
Hydraulic Conductivity
11.3 Modeling Transport of Radionuclides in Groundwater
11.3.1 Drivers of Contaminant Transport in Groundwater
11.3.2 The Concept of Hydrodynamic Dispersion
11.3.3 Modeling Contaminant Transport in Groundwater: No Chemical Reactions Involved
11.3.3.1 Coefficient of Hydrodynamic Dispersion
11.3.3.2 Molecular Diffusion Coefficient
11.3.3.3 The Behavior of Hydrodynamic Dispersion of Contaminant
11.3.3.4 Dispersivity (Dynamic Dispersivity)
11.3.3.5 Relative Importance of Molecular Diffusion and Mechanical Mixing
11.3.4 Analytical Solutions of Contaminant Transport Equation
11.3.4.1 Case 1: Pulse Injection of a Contaminant into an Infinite, Homogeneous Column of Porous Material
11.3.4.2 Case 2: Movement of Concentration Front in an Infinite Column from a Continuous Source (Steady State Flow)
11.3.5 Modeling Contaminant Transport in Groundwater with Chemical Reactions
11.3.6 Use of Kd for Modeling Sorption in Contaminant Transport
11.3.6.1 Sorption Isotherm Approaches
11.3.6.2 Measurement of Kd
11.3.6.3 Other Considerations in the Use of Kd
11.3.7 General Analytical Solutions for Contaminant Transport Equation
11.4 Effects of Geochemistry on the Migration of Radionuclide in Groundwater
11.4.1 Effect of Chemistry in Near-Field and Far-Field
11.4.2 Solubility
11.4.3 Distribution Coefficients (Kd)
11.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 12: Performance Assessment of Geological Repository
12.1 Definition of Performance Assessment
12.1.1 Meaning of Performance in Performance Assessment
12.1.2 Model Development for Performance Assessment
12.1.2.1 Models for Infiltration Analysis
12.1.2.2 Models for Engineered Barrier Analysis
12.1.2.3 Models for Source Term Analysis
12.1.2.4 Models for Groundwater Flow and Radionuclide Transport
12.1.2.5 Models for Dose Analysis
12.2 Steps in Performance Assessment
12.2.1 Scenario Development
12.2.2 Performing Integrated Analysis for Repository Performance
12.2.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty in Models and Parameters
12.2.3.1 Model Uncertainty
12.2.3.2 Parameter Uncertainty
12.2.3.3 Monte Carlo Method
12.2.4 General Framework of for Uncertainty Analysis
12.3 A Simplified Performance Assessment
12.3.1 Source Term Model
12.3.1.1 Spent Fuel (SF) Waste Form
12.3.1.2 Glass Waste Form
12.3.1.3 Ceramic Waste Form
12.3.1.4 Metallic Waste Form
12.3.1.5 Release from Waste Form to a Waste Package
12.3.2 Unsaturated Zone Transport
12.3.3 Saturated Zone Transport
12.3.4 Calculation of Human Dose
12.4 Results of Performance Assessment: Examples
12.4.1 Comparison of Sites in the U.S. Through Generic Performance Assessment
12.4.2 Results of Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Repository
12.4.2.1 Scenarios Analyzed
12.4.2.2 Results from Site Viability Assessment
The Base Case - Groundwater Induced Release
Disruptive Event Scenarios
12.4.2.3 Results from the Final Environmental Impact Analysis for the Yucca Mountain Repository
The Base Case: Groundwater-Induced Impacts
12.4.3 Results of Performance Assessment from Select Countries
12.5 Natural Analogues
12.5.1 Need for Natural Analogues
12.5.2 Natural Analogues for Waste Forms, Metallic Containers, and Backfills
12.5.2.1 Glass
12.5.2.2 Cementitious Materials
12.5.2.3 Metallic Containers
12.5.2.4 Bentonite Backfill
12.5.3 Natural Analogues for Spent Fuel Disposal or Radionuclides Transport
12.5.3.1 Oklo Mine
12.5.3.2 Cigar Lake
12.5.3.3 Alligator Rivers
12.5.3.4 Pocos de Caldas
12.5.3.5 Other Natural Analogues
12.5.4 Cautions in the Use of Natural Analogues
12.6 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 13: Management of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.1 Brief History of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Management in the U.S.
13.2 Generation of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.2.1 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Nuclear Power Plants
13.2.2 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Other Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities
13.2.3 Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Industrial and Institutional Activities
13.3 Characterization of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.3.1 Sampling for Waste Characterization
13.3.2 Analysis of the Samples
13.3.3 Use of Scaling Factors
13.3.4 Dose Rate Measurements
13.4 Classification of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.4.1 The European Approaches to Waste Classification
13.4.2 The U.S. Approaches to Waste Classification
13.5 Treatment/Processing of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.5.1 Transfer Technologies
13.5.2 Concentration Technologies
13.5.3 Transformation Technologies
13.5.4 Conditioning Technologies
13.6 Packaging of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.7 Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.7.1 Disposal Methods for Low and Intermediate Level Waste
13.7.2 Performance Assessment of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Disposal Facility
13.7.3 Cost of Low and Intermediate Level Waste Disposal
13.8 Mixed Waste
13.9 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 14: Decommissioning a Nuclear Power Plant
14.1 Options for Decommissioning of a Nuclear Power Plant
14.2 Radionuclides of Concern in Decommissioning
14.3 Steps in Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning
14.3.1 Transition Phase
14.3.2 Characterization and Survey
14.3.2.1 Types of Surveys/Characterization
14.3.2.2 Design of Surveys and Sampling
14.3.3 Segmentation and Dismantling
14.3.4 Decontamination and Remediation
14.3.4.1 Chemical Decontamination
14.3.4.2 Mechanical Decontamination
14.3.4.3 Remediation of Contaminated Soils and Groundwater
14.3.5 Waste Management in Decommissioning
14.3.6 Final Site Characterization and Environmental Monitoring
14.3.6.1 Determination of the Acceptable Level of Residual Contamination
14.3.6.2 Residual Contamination Measurements
14.3.6.3 Compliance Determination
14.4 Policy Issues in Decommissioning
14.4.1 Historical Trends in Nuclear Shutdowns
14.4.2 Selection of Nuclear Decommissioning Strategies
14.4.2.1 Selection of Decommissioning Options
14.4.2.2 Selection of the End-State of Decommissioning
14.4.3 Examples of Nuclear Decommissioning in the U.S.
14.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 15: Cross-Cutting Systems Issues: Economics, Nuclear Nonproliferation and Security
15.1 Economics of Nuclear Fuel Cycles
15.1.1 The Concepts and Implications of Spent Fuel Recycling
15.1.1.1 Fuel Cycles Concepts Involving Spent Fuel Reprocessing
15.1.1.2 Spent Fuel Recycling without Reprocessing
15.1.1.3 Fast Reactors for Spent Fuel Recycling
15.1.1.4 Implications of Spent Fuel Reprocessing on Uranium Resource Utilization
15.1.1.5 Implications of Spent Fuel Reprocessing on Repository Space Utilization
15.1.2 Comparison of Economics of Nuclear Fuel Cycles
15.1.2.1 Calculation of the Fuel Cycle Cost
15.1.2.2 Comparison of Fuel Cycles Using Total Electricity Generation Costs
15.2 Nuclear Nonproliferation
15.2.1 Risk of Nuclear Proliferation
15.2.2 Proliferation Resistance of Nuclear Fuel Cycle
15.2.3 International Regime for Nuclear Nonproliferation
15.2.4 Principles of Nuclear Safeguards
15.2.5 Nuclear Safeguards and Nuclear Waste Management
15.3 Nuclear Security
15.3.1 Basic Concepts of Nuclear Security
15.3.2 International Regime for Nuclear Security
15.3.3 Physical Protection System for Nuclear Facilities
15.4 Role of Policy in National Choices on Reprocessing
15.4.1 Comparison of National Policies on Reprocessing
15.4.2 Determinants for Spent Fuel Reprocessing Policy
15.4.3 Multilateral Approaches to Spent Fuel Reprocessing
15.5 Conclusions
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 16: Social Aspects of Nuclear Waste Management
16.1 Social Aspect of Risk of Nuclear Waste
16.2 Psychological Aspects of Risk
16.3 The Concept of Risk Perception
16.4 Human Cognition Toward Risk Attitude
16.4.1 Human Information Processing
16.4.2 Influence of Heuristics and Biases
16.4.3 Influence of Worldviews, Interpersonal Relations and Ethics as Cultural Biases
16.4.3.1 Influence of Worldview
16.4.3.2 Influence of Worldview Through Interpersonal Relations
16.4.3.3 Influence of Ethics
16.5 Challenges of Risk Communication
16.5.1 Understanding the Differences Between Experts and the Public
16.5.1.1 Risk Information Gap Between Experts and the Public
16.5.1.2 Differences in the Way of Thinking Between the Experts and the Public
16.5.2 Difficulties with Science
16.5.3 Issues with the Role of Media
16.6 Conclusions
Homework
Further Reading
References
Chapter 17: Addressing Key Challenges in Nuclear Waste Management
17.1 Recognizing Nuclear Waste as a Legitimate Problem to Solve
17.2 Difficulties with Human Institutions in Dealings with the Problem of Nuclear Waste
17.3 Risk Perception of Nuclear Waste
17.4 The Challenge of Long-Term Safety Performance Requirement
17.5 Conclusion
Homework
Further Reading
References
Index