Next-Generation Plant-based Foods: Design, Production, and Properties

Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
Chapter 1: The Rise of Plant-Based Foods
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Environmental and Sustainability Reasons for Consuming Plant-Based Foods
1.2.1 The Inefficiency of Animals as Foods
1.2.2 Impact of Animal Foods on the Environment
1.2.3 Improving the Efficiency of Food Production
1.2.4 Establishment of Planetary Boundaries
1.2.5 Ensuring Biodiversity
1.3 Ethical Reasons for Consuming Plant-Based Foods
1.4 Health Reasons for Consuming Plant-Based Foods
1.5 The Importance of Taste
1.6 Opportunities for the Food Industry
1.7 Other Sources of Alternative Proteins
1.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Properties and Functionality of Plant-Based Ingredients
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Proteins
2.2.1 Protein Structure
2.2.2 Protein Extraction and Refinement
2.2.3 Protein Ingredients
2.2.4 Protein Characterization
2.3 Carbohydrates
2.3.1 Carbohydrate Structure
2.3.2 Carbohydrate Isolation
2.3.3 Carbohydrate Ingredient Properties
2.3.4 Carbohydrate Characterization
2.4 Lipids
2.4.1 Lipid Structure
2.4.2 Lipid Isolation
2.4.3 Lipid Ingredients
2.4.4 Lipid Characterization
2.5 Other Additives
2.5.1 Salts
2.5.2 Colors and Flavors
2.5.3 pH Controllers
2.5.4 Crosslinking Agents
2.5.5 Preservatives
2.5.6 Micronutrients and Nutraceuticals
2.6 Ingredient Functionality
2.6.1 Solubility
2.6.2 Molecular Binding Interactions
2.6.3 Fluid-Holding Capacity
2.6.4 Thickening
2.6.5 Gelling
2.6.6 Binders and Extenders
2.6.7 Emulsification
2.6.8 Foaming
2.6.9 Melting and Crystallization
2.6.10 Nutrition
2.6.11 Gastrointestinal Fate
2.6.12 Miscellaneous Functions
2.7 Ingredient Utilization
2.8 Minimally-Processed Ingredients
2.9 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 3: Processes and Equipment to Create Plant-Based Foods
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Molecular Approaches to Structuring Plant-Based Ingredients
3.2.1 Biopolymer Phase Separation
3.2.1.1 Segregative Phase Separation
3.2.1.2 Associative Phase Separation
3.2.2 Gelation
3.2.3 Phase Transitions
3.3 Advanced Particle Technologies
3.3.1 Types of Advanced Particles
3.3.1.1 Emulsions
3.3.1.2 Solid Fat Particles
3.3.1.3 Liposomes
3.3.1.4 Biopolymer Particles
3.3.1.5 Biopolymer Microgels
3.3.2 Applications of Advanced Particle Technologies
3.3.2.1 Water Dispersibility
3.3.2.2 Chemical Stability
3.3.2.3 Controlled Release
3.3.2.4 Flavor Masking
3.3.2.5 Control of Macronutrient Digestion
3.3.2.6 Texture Modification
3.3.2.7 Modification of Optical Properties
3.3.2.8 Macronutrient Replacement
3.4 Mechanical Processing Methods
3.4.1 Size Reduction
3.4.1.1 Milling
3.4.1.2 Grinding
3.4.1.3 Homogenization
3.4.2 Separation and Fractionation Methods
3.4.2.1 Decanter Centrifuge
3.4.2.2 Hydrocyclones
3.4.2.3 Filtration
3.5 Structure Formation Methods
3.5.1 Extrusion
3.5.2 Shear Cell
3.5.3 Additive Manufacturing
3.6 Thermal Processing Methods
3.6.1 Blanching
3.6.2 Inactivation of Antinutrients
3.6.3 Pasteurization and Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) Treatments
3.7 Fermentation Methods
3.7.1 Enzymatic Fermentation
3.7.2 Microbial Fermentation
3.8 Process Design Examples: Soy, Oat, and Nut Milk
3.9 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 4: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Plant-Based Foods
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Appearance
4.2.1 Factors Affecting Appearance
4.2.1.1 Spatial Uniformity
4.2.1.2 Transmission and Reflection
4.2.1.3 Surface Gloss
4.2.1.4 Selective Absorption
4.2.1.5 Scattering
4.2.2 Modeling and Prediction of Appearance
4.2.2.1 Calculation of Scattering Characteristics of Particles
4.2.2.2 Determination of Absorption Spectra of Chromophores
4.2.2.3 Calculation of Spectral Reflectance of Colloidal Dispersion
4.2.2.4 Calculation of Tristimulus Color Coordinates from Reflectance Spectra
4.2.3 Major Factors Impacting the Appearance of Plant-Based Foods
4.2.3.1 Chromophore Type and Concentration
4.2.3.2 Particle Size and Concentration
4.2.3.3 Refractive Index Contrast
4.2.4 Measurement of the Appearance of Plant-Based Foods
4.2.5 Color Attributes of Plant-Based Foods
4.3 Texture
4.3.1 Fluids
4.3.1.1 Definition and Description of Shear Viscosity
4.3.1.2 Major Factors Impacting Viscosity
4.3.1.3 Rheological Characterization of Fluids
4.3.2 Solids
4.3.2.1 Ideal Solids
4.3.2.2 Non-ideal Solids
4.3.2.3 Rheological Characterization of Solids
4.3.3 Practical Considerations
4.4 Stability
4.4.1 Gravitational Separation
4.4.2 Particle Aggregation
4.4.3 Phase Separation
4.4.4 Chemical Degradation
4.4.5 Microbial Contamination
4.4.6 Quantification of Stability
4.5 Fluid Holding and Cookability Properties
4.6 Partitioning, Retention and Release Properties
4.6.1 Partitioning Phenomena
4.6.1.1 Equilibrium Partitioning Coefficients
4.6.1.2 Partitioning of Substances in Multiphase Systems
4.6.1.3 Partitioning of Flavors into the Headspace
4.6.2 Retention and Release Processes
4.7 Oral Processing and Sensory Attributes
4.7.1 Oral Processing
4.7.2 Sensory Evaluation
4.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Nutritional and Health Aspects
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Macronutrients
5.2.1 Proteins
5.2.1.1 Introduction
5.2.1.2 Amino Acid Profiles
5.2.1.3 Digestibility
5.2.1.4 Protein Quality
5.2.1.5 Bioactivity
5.2.1.6 Allergenicity
5.2.2 Lipids
5.2.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2.2 Saturated Fatty Acids
5.2.2.3 Unsaturated Fatty Acids
5.2.2.4 Cholesterol
5.2.3 Carbohydrates
5.2.3.1 Introduction
5.2.3.2 Starches
5.2.3.3 Sugars and Oligosaccharides
5.2.3.4 Dietary Fibers
5.3 Micronutrients
5.3.1 Vitamins
5.3.1.1 Vitamin B12
5.3.1.2 Vitamin D
5.3.2 Minerals
5.3.2.1 Iron
5.3.2.2 Zinc
5.3.2.3 Calcium
5.4 Nutraceuticals
5.5 Gastrointestinal Fate: Digestibility, Bioavailability, and Fermentability
5.6 Impact of Diet on the Gut Microbiome
5.7 Nutritional Studies Comparing Plant- and Animal-Based Diets
5.8 Evolution, Genetics and Meat Consumption
5.9 The Agricultural Revolution and Meat Consumption
5.10 Improving Healthiness of Plant-Based Foods
5.10.1 Fortification
5.10.2 Reformulation: Reduced Fat, Salt, Sugar, and Digestibility
5.10.3 Agricultural and Processing Approaches
5.11 Microbiological and Chemical Toxins
5.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Meat and Fish Alternatives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Properties of Meat and Fish
6.2.1 Muscle Structure and Composition
6.2.2 Appearance
6.2.3 Textural Attributes
6.2.4 Cooking Loss and Heat-induced Changes
6.2.5 Flavor Profile and Oral Processing
6.3 Ingredients for Formulating Plant-based Meat Analogs
6.3.1 Plant Proteins
6.3.2 Lipids
6.3.3 Binders
6.3.4 Coloring Agents
6.3.5 Flavoring Agents
6.4 Processing Methods
6.4.1 Protein Texturization
6.4.2 Plant-based Meat Preparations
6.4.3 Plant-based Meat Products
6.5 Key Properties
6.5.1 Color
6.5.2 Texture
6.5.3 Fluid Holding
6.5.4 Flavor
6.5.5 Nutritional Value
6.5.6 Environmental Sustainability
6.6 Future Directions
References
Chapter 7: Eggs and Egg Products
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Properties of Hen’s Eggs
7.2.1 Composition and Structure
7.2.2 Processing
7.2.3 Physicochemical Properties
7.2.3.1 Appearance
7.2.3.2 Rheology
7.2.3.3 Stability
7.2.4 Functional Properties
7.2.4.1 Thickening, Gelling, and Binding
7.2.4.2 Emulsifying and Foaming
7.2.5 Flavor
7.3 Plant-Based Egg Analogs
7.3.1 Composition and Structure
7.3.2 Processing
7.3.3 Physicochemical Properties
7.3.3.1 Appearance
7.3.3.2 Rheology
7.3.3.3 Stability
7.3.4 Functional Properties
7.3.4.1 Thickening, Gelling, and Binding
7.3.4.2 Emulsifying and Foaming
7.3.5 Characterization of Egg Analogs
7.3.6 Commercial Egg Analogs
7.4 Comparative Nutrition, Sustainability, and Ethics of Eggs and Egg Analogs
7.5 Egg Products
7.5.1 Emulsified Products: Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings
7.5.1.1 Composition and Structure
7.5.1.2 Physicochemical Properties
7.5.1.3 Flavor Profile and Sensory Properties
7.5.1.4 Commercial Products
7.5.2 Thickened and Gelled Products: Custards, Flans, and Quiches
7.5.3 Foamed Products: Meringues, Mousses, and Soufflé
7.5.4 Baked Products: Cakes, Cookies, and Pastries
7.5.5 Advantages of Egg Analogs to Food Manufacturer
7.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 8: Plant-Based Milk and Cream Analogs
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Attributes of Cow’s Milk
8.2.1 Composition and Microstructure
8.2.2 Processing
8.2.3 Physicochemical and Sensory Properties
8.2.4 Functional Versatility
8.2.5 Nutritional Profile
8.3 Production of Plant-Based Milk Analogs
8.3.1 Plant Tissue Disruption Approaches
8.3.2 Emulsification Approaches
8.3.2.1 Ingredients
8.3.2.2 Processing Operations
8.4 Physicochemical Attributes
8.4.1 Appearance
8.4.1.1 Physical Basis of Appearance
8.4.1.2 Measurement of Appearance
8.4.1.3 Comparison to Cow’s Milk
8.4.2 Texture
8.4.2.1 Physical Basis of Rheology
8.4.2.2 Measurement of Rheology
8.4.2.3 Comparison to Cow’s Milk
8.4.3 Stability
8.4.3.1 Physical Basis of Instability
8.4.3.2 Quantification of Milk Stability
8.4.3.3 Comparison to Cow’s Milk
8.5 Sensory Attributes
8.6 Nutritional Attributes
8.7 Nutritional Fortification
8.8 Environmental Impact: Life Cycle Analysis
8.9 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Chapter 9: Dairy Alternatives – Cheese, Yogurt, Butter, and Ice Cream
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History of Plant-Based Cheeses
9.3 Animal-Based Cheeses
9.3.1 Raw Materials
9.3.2 Cheese Production
9.3.3 Production of Cheese Varieties
9.3.4 Key Physicochemical Properties
9.3.4.1 Textural Properties and Appearance
9.3.4.2 Meltability
9.3.4.3 Flavor Profile
9.3.4.4 Shreddability
9.4 Plant-Based Cheese Ingredients
9.4.1 Polysaccharides
9.4.2 Proteins
9.4.3 Fats
9.5 Production of Plant-Based Cheese
9.5.1 Overview of Production Methods
9.5.2 Fractionation Route
9.5.3 Tissue Disruption Route
9.6 Sustainability and Health Considerations
9.6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
9.6.2 Health Aspects
9.7 Other Dairy Alternatives
9.7.1 Yogurt
9.7.2 Ice Cream
9.7.3 Whipping Cream
9.7.4 Butter
9.8 Future Considerations
References
Chapter 10: Facilitating the Transition to a Plant-Based Diet
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Research
10.2.1 Ingredient Innovation
10.2.2 Food Quality Design
10.2.3 Nutritional Implications
10.2.4 Environmental Impacts
10.2.5 Socioeconomic Impacts
10.3 Education
10.4 Consumer Awareness
10.5 Government Support
10.6 Food Systems Approaches
10.7 Final Thoughts
References
Appendix: Analysis of Plant-Based Ingredients and Foods
Introduction
Moisture Content
Protein Analysis
Total Protein Content
Dumas Method
Kjeldahl Method
Comparison
Amino Acid Analysis
Protein Content Calculation
Protein Composition
Protein Denaturation State
Fat Analysis
Total Fat Content
Fat Composition
Mineral Analysis
Carbohydrate Analysis
Vitamin Analysis
Rapid Composition Analysis: Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
Conclusions
References
Index