Natural Product Experiments in Drug Discovery

Preface
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Flavonoid Investigation of Methanolic Leaf Extract of Piliostigma thonningii (Schum...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Plant Samples Collection and Identification
2.2 Preparation and Extraction of Plant Samples
2.3 Phytochemical Analysis on the Crude Extract
2.4 Antioxidant Assay on the Crude Extract
2.5 Fractionation, Partitioning, Isolation, and Characterization of Flavonoids from the Leaf Extract
3 Results
3.1 Phytochemical Screening
3.2 Antioxidant Activity of the Crude Extract
3.3 Characterization of Isolated Flavonoids
3.3.1 Compound 1
3.3.2 Compound 2
3.3.3 Compound 3
3.3.4 Compound 4
3.3.5 Compound 5
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: A Comparative Evaluation of Organoleptic, Physicochemical, Proximate, and Mineral Composition of Syzygium laetum an...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Plant Collection and Identification
2.2 Organoleptic Characteristics
2.3 Proximate Analysis
2.3.1 Determination of Extractive Values
2.3.1.1 Water-Soluble Extractive
2.3.1.2 Alcohol-Soluble Extractive
2.3.1.3 Petroleum Ether Extractive
2.3.1.4 Ethyl Acetate Soluble Extractive
2.3.2 Crude Fiber
2.3.3 Vitamin A
2.3.4 Vitamin C
2.3.5 Minerals
2.3.6 Heavy Metals
2.3.7 Ash Content
2.3.7.1 Total Ash
2.3.7.2 Acid Insoluble Ash
2.3.7.3 Water-Soluble Ash
2.3.7.4 Sulfated Ash
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Chemical Characterization, Biological Activities, and Some Medicinal Uses of Different Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicu...
1 Introduction
2 Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)
3 Differences in Essential Oil Composition of Sweet Basil Related to Morphological and Genetic Characteristics
4 Biological Activities of Sweet Basil
4.1 Antioxidative Effects
4.2 Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents
4.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal Effects
5 Medicinal Applications in Sweet Basil
5.1 Alzheimer´s Disease
5.2 Epilepsy
5.3 Anti-aging Activity
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Estimation of Primary and Secondary Metabolites and In Vitro Free Radical Scavenging Activities with Ficus tsjahela...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Chemicals
2.2 Collection and Identification of Plant Material
2.3 Preparation of Plant Extracts
2.4 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening
2.4.1 Carbohydrates
2.4.2 Proteins
2.4.3 Amino Acids
2.4.4 Phenolic Compounds
2.4.5 Tannins
2.4.6 Flavonoids
2.5 Quantification Assays
2.5.1 Total Phenolics and Tannin Content
2.5.2 Quantification of Flavonoid Contents
2.6 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays
2.6.1 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
2.6.2 Nitric Oxide Scavenging Activity
2.6.3 Metal Chelating Activity
2.7 Statistical Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Determination of Total Phenolics, Flavonoids, and Tannins
3.2 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
3.3 Nitric Oxide Scavenging Activity
3.4 Metal Chelating Activity
4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Evaluating the Lipid Profile and Mineral Composition of the Seed Oil of Caesalpinia sappan L. (Caesalpiniaceae)
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of Plant Material
2.2 Extraction of Total Lipids
2.3 Determination of Iodine Value
2.4 Determination of Saponification Value
2.5 Thin Layer Chromatography
2.6 Analysis by Gas Chromatography
2.7 Determination of Mineral Elements
2.8 Isolation of Crystals from Crude Seed Oil from C. sappan
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Extraction of Oil from Seeds and Its Analysis
3.2 Fatty Acid Composition of Crude Seed Oil
3.3 Metal Composition of the Crude Seed Oil of C. sappan
3.4 Characteristics of Crystal in Crude Seed Oil of C. sappan
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Phytochemical Screening, Physicochemical Analysis, and Powder Characterization of Selected Litsea Species Endemic t...
1 Introduction
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Collection and Authentication
3.2 Extraction of Plant Material
3.3 Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of Phytoconstituents
3.4 Physicochemical Characterization
3.4.1 Determination of Water-Soluble Extractive
3.4.2 Determination of Alcohol Soluble Extractive
3.4.3 Determination of Ash Value
3.4.4 Determination of Acid-Insoluble Ash
3.4.5 Determination of Sulfated Ash
3.4.6 Determination of Crude Fiber
3.5 Powder Microscopic Study
4 Results and Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Metabolite Profiling of Bioactive Compounds in Selected Species of Gomphostemma Wall. ex Benth. from the Western Gh...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of Plant Material
2.2 Preparation of Methanolic Extract
2.3 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) Analysis
3 Result and Discussion
References
8: Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Aromatic Medicinal Plant Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl.
1 Introduction
2 Ethnobotanical Use
3 Phytochemistry
4 Pharmacological Properties
4.1 Analgesic Activity
4.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity
4.3 Anti-hyperlipidemic Activity
4.4 Antidiabetic Activity
4.5 Antimicrobial Activities
4.6 Antioxidant Activity
4.7 Diuretic Activity
4.8 Hepatoprotective Activity
4.9 Larvicidal Activity
4.10 Cytotoxicity
4.11 Antiulcerogenic Activity
4.12 Anti-arthritic Activity
4.13 Fibrinolytic Activity
4.14 Neuroprotective Activity
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Unravelling the Phytochemistry of Ethnomedicinal Tree Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schum.
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of Plant Material and Preparation of Extract
2.2 HR-LCMS
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Comparative Phycochemical Investigation and Antioxidant Content of Two Marine Seaweeds
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection and Identification of Plant Material
2.2 Extraction of Plant Material
2.3 Extract Recovery Percentage
2.4 Qualitative Phycochemical Screening
2.5 Detection of Carbohydrates
2.6 Detection of Proteins
2.7 Detection of Amino Acids
2.8 Detection of Saponins
2.9 Detection of Phenolic Compounds
2.10 Detection of Flavonoids
2.11 Detection of Cardiac Glycosides
2.12 Quantification Assays
2.12.1 Quantification of Total Phenolics
2.12.2 Quantification of Tannins
2.12.3 Quantification of Total Flavonoids
2.13 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays
2.13.1 DPPH Scavenging Activity
2.13.2 Phosphomolybdenum Assay
2.13.3 Metal Chelating Activity
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Extraction Yield Percentage
3.2 Qualitative Phycochemical Screening
3.3 Quantitative Analysis
3.3.1 Determination of Total Phenolics, Flavonoids, and Tannins
3.4 Antioxidant Studies
3.4.1 Determination of Phosphomolybdenum Reduction Activity
3.4.2 Metal Chelating Activity
3.4.3 DPPH Radical Scavenging
3.5 HPLC Analysis of T.decurrens and U. lactuca Extracts
4 Summary and Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Evaluation of Nutritional, Antioxidant, and Anti-arthritic Activity of Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig Rhizome
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection and Identification of Plant Material
2.2 Chemicals
2.3 Extraction of Rhizome
2.3.1 Extract Recovery Percentage
2.4 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of H. Coronarium
2.5 Determination of Moisture Content of H. coronarium Rhizome
2.6 Determination of Ash Content of H. coronarium Rhizome
2.7 Evaluation of Nutritional Composition of H. coronarium Rhizome
2.7.1 Determination of Total Soluble Carbohydrate Content
2.7.2 Determination of Total Protein Content
2.7.3 Estimation of Total Free Amino Acid Content
2.7.4 Estimation of Starch
2.7.5 Estimation of Total Free Fatty Acids
2.8 Mineral Quantification in H. coronarium Rhizome [10]
2.8.1 Estimation of Potassium (K)
2.8.2 Estimation of Phosphorous (P)
2.8.3 Estimation of Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
2.8.4 Estimation of Iron (Fe) Using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
2.8.5 Estimation of Sodium (Na)
2.9 Estimation of Amino Acid Content
2.10 Quantification of Secondary Metabolites in H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
2.10.1 Determination of Total Phenolic and Tannin Contents
2.10.2 Determination of Flavonoids Content
2.11 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
2.11.1 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay
2.11.2 ABTS.+ Scavenging Assay
2.11.3 Phosphomolybdenum Assay
2.11.4 Superoxide Anion Radical Scavenging Activity
2.12 In Vitro Anti-Arthritic Activity by Inhibition of Protein Denaturation
2.13 Statistical Analysis
3 Results
3.1 Extract Yield Percentage of H. coronarium Rhizome
3.2 Qualitative Analysis of Phytochemicals of H. coronarium Rhizome
3.3 Moisture and Ash Content of H. coronarium Rhizome
3.4 Nutritional Content of H. coronarium Rhizome
3.5 Minerals and Amino Acids Composition of H. coronarium Rhizome
3.6 Quantification of Secondary Metabolites in H. coronarium Rhizome
3.6.1 Total Phenolics and Tannin Contents of H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
3.6.2 Total Flavonoid Contents of H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
3.7 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
3.7.1 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Activity
3.7.2 ABTS.+ Scavenging Activity
3.7.3 Phosphomolybdenum Assay
3.7.4 Superoxide Anion Radical Scavenging Activity
3.8 In Vitro Anti-arthritic Activity of H. coronarium Rhizome Extracts
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Phytochemical, Pharmacognostic, and In Vitro Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Act ivities of Cipadessa baccifera Le...
1 Introduction
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Pharmacognostic Evaluation
3.1.1 Collection of Specimens
3.1.2 Sectioning
3.1.3 Photomicrographs
3.2 Extraction of Phytochemical by Soxhlet Method
3.3 Phytochemical Estimation
3.3.1 Estimation of Phenol
3.3.2 Estimation of Tannin
3.3.3 Estimation of Flavonoid
3.3.4 Estimation of Alkaloid
3.3.5 Estimation of Saponin
3.3.6 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
3.4 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition Assay (Ellman´s Method)
References
Chapter 13: Comparative Study of Drug Efficiency of Semecarpus anacardium and Tridax procumbens Against Zika Virus
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Determination of the Bioactive Compounds of the Leaves of Scemecarpus anacardium and Tridax procumbens
2.2 Screening of Protein Ligand Library
2.3 Virtual Ligand Screening
2.4 2D QSAR
2.5 ADMET Properties
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Screening of Ligand-Lipinski Rule of Five
3.2 Molecular Docking Studies of Scemecarpus anacardium
3.3 Molecular Docking Studies of Tridax Procumbens
3.4 Screening of Drug Properties
3.5 Drug Properties of Scemecarpus anacardium
3.6 Drug Properties of Tridax procumbens
3.7 2D-QSAR Prediction of Scemecarpus anacardium (Table 14)
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Evaluation of In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Oldenlandia dineshii: An Endemic Plant from the Hillocks of Palakka...
1 Introduction
1.1 Oldenlandia dineshii Sojan & V. Suresh
1.2 Free Radicals and Antioxidants
1.3 Role of Antioxidants
1.4 Antioxidant Analysis
1.5 Antioxidant Studies of the Genus Oldenlandia
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of Plant Material
2.2 Preparation of Methanol Extract of Oldenlandia dineshii
2.3 Determination of In Vitro Antioxidant Activity
2.4 Modified Ferric Ion Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
Chapter 15: Identification of Secondary Metabolites Through HR-GC-MS: Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity from Root Fraction...
1 Introduction
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Plant Sample
2.2 Extraction of Crude Drugs
2.3 HR-GC-MS
2.4 Identification of Chemical Constituents
2.5 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity from Plant Extracts
2.5.1 Antibacterial Activity
2.5.2 Test Samples
2.5.3 Test Organisms
2.5.4 Agar Cup Plate Method
2.6 Antifungal Activity of Crude Root Extracts of Alstonia scholaris
2.6.1 Test Samples
2.6.2 Organisms
2.6.3 PDA Method
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Percentage of Yield
3.2 Bioactive Compounds Present in Different Extracts
4 Discussion
References
Chapter 16: In Vitro Models on Inhibition of Inflammatory Mediators by Ethanolic Extract of Careya arborea Roxb. Bark in Lipop...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Preparation of Extracts
2.2 Preliminary Phytochemical Studies
2.3 In Vitro Anti-inflammatory Screening
2.3.1 Protein Denaturation Method
2.3.2 Proteinase Inhibition Method
2.3.3 Anti-Inflammatory Screening Using Lipopolysaccharide-Induced RAW 264.7 Cell Lines
2.3.3.1 Cyclooxygenase (COX) Activity
2.3.3.2 Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) Activity
2.3.3.3 Myeloperoxidase (MPO) Estimation
2.3.3.4 Cellular Nitrite Level Estimation
2.3.3.5 Cytotoxic Activity Study by MTT Assay
2.4 Antioxidant Activity Screening
2.4.1 Iron Chelating Assay
2.4.2 DPPH Assay
2.4.3 Nitric Oxide Scavenging Assay
2.4.4 ABTS Assay
2.4.5 Beta Carotene Bleaching Assay
2.4.5.1 Preparation of Beta Carotene Emulsion
2.4.5.2 Preparation of Sample and Standard
2.4.5.3 Method
2.5 Estimation of Phytoconstituents
2.5.1 Determination of Phenolic Content
2.5.2 Determination of Flavanol
2.5.3 Determination of Tannins
2.5.4 Flavonoid Content [20]
2.5.5 Total Carotenoids [21]
2.6 Statistical Analysis
3 Notes
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 In Vitro Anti-inflammatory Screening
4.1.1 Protein Denaturation
4.1.2 Proteinase Inhibition
4.1.3 Anti-inflammatory Screening Using Lipopolysaccharide-Induced RAW 264.7 Cell Lines
4.1.3.1 Cyclooxygenase Inhibition
4.1.3.2 Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) Inhibition
4.1.3.3 Myeloperoxidase Estimation
4.1.3.4 Cellular Nitrite Level Estimation
4.1.3.5 Cytotoxic activity study by MTT Assay (Fig. 2)
4.2 Antioxidant Activity Screening (Table 7)
4.2.1 Iron Chelating Assay
4.2.2 DPPH Assay
4.2.3 Nitric Oxide Scavenging Assay
4.2.4 ABTS Assay
4.2.5 Beta Carotene Bleaching Assay
4.3 Estimation of Phytoconstituents
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Pharmacological Elucidation of Antioxidant, Hypoglycemic, and Anti-Inflammatory Potentials of Phyllanthus candolle...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection and Identification of P. candolleanus
2.2 Chemicals
2.3 Extraction of P. candolleanus Bark
2.4 Extract Recovery Percentage of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.5 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.6 Proximate Composition Analyses of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.7 Estimation of Secondary Metabolites of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.8 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.9 In Vitro Anti-inflammatory Activity of P. candolleanus by Membrane Stabilization Method [25]
2.10 In Vitro Antidiabetic Activities of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
2.10.1 α-Amylase Inhibition Assay
2.10.2 α-Glucosidase Inhibition Assay
3 Results
3.1 Extract Recovery Percentage of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.2 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.3 Proximate Composition Analysis of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.3.1 Ash Value
3.3.2 Total Carbohydrates
3.3.3 Total Starch
3.3.4 Total Protein
3.3.5 Total Amino Acids
3.3.6 Total Phenolic Estimation
3.3.7 Total Flavonoid Content
3.3.8 Total Tannin Content
3.4 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.5 In Vitro Anti-inflammatory Activity of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.6 In Vitro Antidiabetic Activity of P. candolleanus Bark Extracts
3.6.1 α-Amylase Inhibition Activity
3.6.2 α-Glucosidase Inhibition Assay
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: α-Glucosidase Inhibition and Upregulation of PPARγ by Flavonoid Naringenin from Tinospora sinensis Stem, a Possibl...
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Chemicals and Reagents
2.2 Cell Lines and Maintenance
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation of Extract and Fractions
3.2 In Vivo Studies
3.2.1 Experimental Animals
3.2.2 Acute Toxicity Study (OECD 423)
3.2.3 Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
3.2.4 Normoglycemic Studies
3.2.5 Streptozotocin-Nicotinamide-Induced Type 2 Diabetes
3.2.6 Antidiabetic Studies on Streptozotocin-Nicotinamide-Induced Diabetic Rats
3.2.7 Biochemical Analysis
3.2.8 Statistical Analysis
3.3 Isolation of Phytoconstituents
3.4 α-Glucosidase Inhibition Assay of Isolated Compound
3.5 In Vitro Gene Expression (PPARγ) Studies of Isolated Compound in L6 Myotubes
3.5.1 Determination of Cell Viability by MTT Assay
3.5.2 Isolation of Total RNA
3.5.3 Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)
3.5.4 Amplification Conditions for PPARγ Gene
3.5.5 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
4 Notes
5 Results and Discussion
5.1 In Vivo Studies
5.1.1 Acute Toxicity
5.1.2 Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
5.1.3 Normoglycemic Studies
5.1.4 Antidiabetic Studies on Streptozotocin-Nicotinamide (STZ-NA)-Induced Diabetic Rats
5.1.4.1 Effect of Extracts on Body Weight
5.1.4.2 Effect of Extracts on Fasting Blood Glucose Levels
5.1.4.3 Effect of Extracts on Serum Lipid Parameters
5.1.4.4 Effect of Extracts on Serum Biomarkers of Liver and Kidney
5.1.4.5 Effect of Extracts on Glycated Hemoglobin Levels
5.2 Characterization of Isolated Compounds
5.3 Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity of Naringenin
5.4 PPARγ Activation Studies on Isolated Compound Naringenin
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Purification and Characterization of a Cysteine Protease from Sprouted Lablab purpureus Seed Radicle Extract: Its ...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Preparation of L. purpureus Seed Radicle Aqueous Extract
2.2 Purification of Cysteine Protease
2.2.1 Sephadex G-75 Column Chromatography
2.2.2 DEAE Sephadex A-50 Column Chromatography
2.2.3 Proteolytic Activity
2.2.4 pH and Temperature Kinetics Study
2.2.5 RP-HPLC Column Chromatography
2.2.6 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time Of Flight (MALDI-TOF)
2.2.7 Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
2.2.8 Zymogram Assay
2.2.9 Circular Dichroism Study
2.2.10 Fibrinogenolytic Activity
2.3 Effect of Protease on Blood Coagulation
2.3.1 Recalcification Time
2.3.2 Prothrombin Time
2.3.3 Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time
2.4 Effect of Protease on Platelet Aggregation
2.4.1 Collection of Blood
2.4.2 Platelet Aggregation
2.4.3 Tail Bleeding Assay
3 Results
3.1 Purification and Characterization of Purpurease
3.2 Effect of pH and Temperature on the Activity
3.3 Effect of Inhibitors
3.4 Fibrinogenolytic Activity
3.5 Effect of Purpurease on Blood Coagulation
3.6 Effect of Purpurease on Platelet Aggregation
3.7 Tail Bleeding Assay
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Effect of Sterilization Agents, Growth Regulators, and Activated Charcoal on Callus Cultures of Evolvulus alsinoid...
1 Introduction
2 Results and Discussion
2.1 Explant Sterilization
2.2 Callus Induction
2.3 Effects of Activated Charcoal on Callus Induction
2.4 Effects of Combination of Auxin and Cytokinin on Callus Induction
2.5 Callus Maintenance
3 Materials and Methods
3.1 Plant Material and Explant Sterilization
3.2 Culture Medium
3.3 Callus Induction
3.4 Callus Maintenance
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Bryophytes: A Myriad Hue of Bio-resources with Therapeutic Potentialities
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of Leucobryum bowringii, Octoblepharum albidum and Plagiochila beddomei
2.2 Thin Layer Chromatography of Phenols and Flavonoids from L. Bowringii, O. albidum and Plagiochila beddomei
2.3 HPLC-UV-PAD Analysis
2.4 CZE Analysis
2.5 Modular LC System Analysis
2.6 Axenic Culture of Brachythecium buchananii, Thuidium tamariscellum, Marchantia polymorpha and M. linearis
2.6.1 Plant Materials
2.6.2 Axenic Culturing in Bryophytes
2.6.3 Cell Suspension Culture of Marchantia Species
2.6.4 Induction of Terpenoid Synthesis from In Vitro Raised Plantlets
2.6.5 Optimization of Flavonoid Production from the Suspension Cultures of Marchantia sps
2.7 Identification, Quantification and Fractionation of Bioactive Compounds
2.7.1 Extraction of Terpenoids by Silica Gel Column Chromatography
2.7.2 HPLC Analysis
2.7.3 Reverse Phase HPLC of Marchantia sps
2.7.4 Thin Layer Chromatography & Reverse Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) PAD of Marchantia sps
2.7.5 FTIR Analysis
2.7.6 GC-MS (Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrum) Analysis
2.8 Biological Potentialities
2.8.1 Antimicrobial Analysis
2.8.2 Insecticidal Properties of Marchantia Species
2.8.3 Antioxidant Activity
2.8.4 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of B. buchananii, and T. tamariscellum
2.8.5 Anticancer Analysis of Bryophytes
2.8.5.1 Cells and Culture Conditions
2.8.5.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) & Matrigel Invasion Assays of SW 480 Colon Cancer Cells
2.8.6 Wound Healing Analysis of Plagiochila beddomei
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 In Vivo Extraction, Characterization of Phenols and Flavonoids from Plagiochila beddomei, Leucobryum bowringii and Octoble...
3.2 Thin Layer Chromatography of Phenols and Flavonoids from L. bowringii, O. albidum and Plagiochila beddomei
3.3 HPLC-UV-PAD Analyses
3.4 CZE Analysis
3.5 Axenic Cultures of Selected Bryophytes
3.6 Cell Suspension Culture and Optimization of Flavonoid Production
3.7 Identification, Quantification and Fractionation of Bioactive Compounds
3.7.1 Isolation and Purification of Terpenoids
3.7.2 Thin Layer Chromatography & Reverse Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) PAD of Bioactive Compounds fr...
3.7.3 HPLC Analysis
3.7.4 RP-HPLC Fractionation of Phenols
3.7.5 FTIR Analysis
3.7.6 GC-MS Analysis
3.8 Biological Potentialities
3.8.1 Antimicrobial Potential
3.8.2 Insecticidal Properties
3.8.3 Antioxidant Potentiality
3.8.4 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of B. buchananii, and T. tamariscellum
3.8.5 Antimetastatic Potentiality
3.8.6 Wound Healing Potentiality of Plagiochila beddomei
References
Chapter 22: Recent Biotechnological Approaches for the Enhancement of Artemisinin Production from Cell Culture System of Artem...
1 Introduction
2 Biosynthetic Pathway of Artemisinin
3 Plant Cell Cultures as Alternative Platform for Secondary Metabolite Production
4 Plant Cell Cultures as Chemical Synthesis Factories
5 Approaches for Callus Culture of A. annua
6 Approaches to Increase the Production of Artemisinin
6.1 Selection of High-Yielding Cell Lines
6.2 Optimization of Nutrient Media
6.3 Carbohydrate Source
6.4 Plant Growth Regulators
6.5 Use of Elicitors
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: The Utility of Natural Mucilage from the Medicinal Plant ``Patha´´ (Cyclea peltata) as an Alternative for Solidify...
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Collection and Authentication of Plant Sample
2.2 Ingredients of Growth Media
2.3 Reagents Used in the Study
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation of Various Extracts of C. peltata
3.1.1 Preparation of Aqueous Extract
3.1.2 Preparation of Chloroform and Ethanol Extract
3.2 Extraction of C. peltata Leaf Gel
3.3 Morphological and Phytochemical Characterization
3.3.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Screening
3.3.1.1 Test for Alkaloids
3.3.1.2 Test for Carbohydrates
3.3.1.3 Test for Tannins and Phenolic Compound [15]
3.3.1.4 Test for Flavonoids
3.3.1.5 Test for Saponins
3.3.1.6 Test for Protein
3.3.1.7 Test for Reducing Sugar
3.4 Functional Group Analysis by FTIR Method
3.5 Antibacterial Screening of the Leaf Extracts
3.5.1 Preparation of Bacterial Inocula
3.5.2 Preparation of Bacteriological Media
3.5.3 Procedure for Disc Diffusion Method
3.6 Preparation of Cell Growth Media with Gel as a Solidifying Agent
3.6.1 Preparation of MS Media Preparation
3.6.1.1 Preparation of Micronutrient Stock
3.6.1.2 Preparation of Vitamin Mixture Stock (100X)
3.6.1.3 Preparation of Cytokinin Stock (100X)
3.6.1.4 Step-by-Step Mixing of MS Medium
3.6.1.5 Explant Sterilization and Inoculation
3.6.1.6 Transfer of Explant to the Tissue Culture Medium
4 Result and Discussion
4.1 Physical Properties and Phytochemical Characterization of the Gel
4.1.1 Physical Properties of the Gel
4.1.2 Phytochemical Screening
4.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer (FTIR) Analysis
4.3 Antibacterial Properties of the Extract
4.4 Suitability of Gel as an Alternative Solidifying Agent in Cell Growth Media
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: Microwave Irradiation-Assisted Extraction and Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Tree Tomato Fruit Pulp (Sola...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
2.2 Collection of Fruit
2.3 Preparation of Fruit Extract Using MAE
2.4 Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
2.5 Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles
2.5.1 UV-Vis Spectroscopy
2.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
2.5.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopic Analysis
2.5.4 SEM with EDAX, TEM with SAED, and DLS with Zeta Potential Analysis of AgNPs
2.6 Cell Culture and Maintenance
2.6.1 In Vitro Cytotoxicity by MTT Assay
2.6.2 Acridine Orange (AO) and Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) Staining
2.7 Statistical Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Synthesis and UV-Vis Spectroscopic Analysis of Silver Nanoparticles
3.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
3.3 FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis
3.4 SEM with EDAX, TEM with SAED, and DLS with Zeta Potential Analysis of AgNPs
3.5 Particle Size Distribution and Zeta Potential Measurement
3.6 Determination of Anticancer Activity of AgNPs Against MCF-7 Cell Line by MTT Assay
3.7 Determination of Apoptosis by Acridine Orange (AO) and Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) Staining
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25: Characterization of Crystals Isolated from the Caesalpinia sappan Seeds: A Comparative In Silico Analysis on Bioac...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Isolation of Crystals From Seed Oil of C. sappan
2.2.2 Spectroscopic Analysis
2.2.3 ADME/T Properties (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination/Toxicity)
2.2.4 Drug Target Identification
3 Results And Discussion
3.1 Spectroscopic Analysis
3.2 ADME/T Properties
3.3 Target Prediction
4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Computational Analysis of Natural Compounds as Potential Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 Inhibitor for the Treatment of...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Identification of Bioactive Compounds by GC-MS Analysis
2.2 Sorting the Compound Library
2.3 Selection of Protein Target and Molecular Docking of Compound Library
2.4 Screening of Drug Properties
2.5 Molecular Dynamic Simulation
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Molecular Docking Studies of Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
3.2 MD Simulation: N-Propyl Decyl Ether Stably Binds to Human IDH1
3.3 In Silico ADMET Studies
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Drug Efficiency of Oroxylum indicum and Taxus wallichiana Against Colon-Associated Diseases: In Silico Studies
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Determination of Bioactive Compounds of Oroxylum indicum and Taxus wallichiana
2.2 Screening of Protein Ligand Library
2.3 Virtual Ligand Screening
2.4 Visualization of the Protein-Ligand Complex Using Discovery Studio 3.1
2.5 Screening of Drug Properties
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Molecular Docking Studies of Bioactive Compounds Against PMS2 Variant (PDB ID: 6MFQ)
3.2 Molecular Docking Studies of Bioactive Compounds Against TcdB Toxin of Clostridium difficile (PDB ID: 7ML7)
3.3 Molecular Docking Studies of Bioactive Compounds Against APC-ARM (PDB ID: 3TU7)
3.4 Screening of Drug Properties
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 28: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Phytoconstituents from Garcinia gummi-gutta Seed Extract: Trypsin...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Chemicals
2.2 Preparation of G. cambogia Seed Extract
2.3 Phytochemical Analysis by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
2.4 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity
2.4.1 Total Antioxidant Activity
2.4.2 FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power)
2.4.3 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Assay
2.5 Trypsin Inhibition Assay
2.6 Molecular Docking Study
3 Results
3.1 Preparation of Seed Extract
3.2 Phytochemical Analysis by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
3.3 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity
3.3.1 Total Antioxidant Activity
3.3.2 FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power)
3.3.3 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Assay
3.4 Trypsin Inhibition Assay
3.5 Molecular Docking Study
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 29: In Silico Analysis of Anti-inflammatory Activity of Quercetin from M. calabura Fruit
1 Introduction
1.1 Bioinformatics
1.2 Molecular Docking
1.3 Computational Molecular Docking
1.4 Types of Interactions
1.4.1 Protein-Protein Docking Interactions
1.4.2 Protein Receptor-Ligand Docking
1.5 The Mechanics of Docking
1.6 Advantages
1.7 Muntingia calabura Tree Features
1.8 Anti-inflammatory Effect
1.9 Quercetin: The Plant Secondary Metabolite
2 Methodology
2.1 Protein Data Bank
2.2 PubChem Compound
2.3 Software Used: ChemSketch
2.4 Accelrys: Discovery Studio 2.1
2.5 Receptor-Ligand Interactions
2.6 Protein Selection and Preparation
2.7 Ligand Selection and Preparation
2.8 Dock Ligands (LigandFit)
2.9 Docking Process
2.10 Docking Studies
2.11 Validation of the Docking Protocol
3 Results
4 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 30: Phytochemical Investigation, Molecular Docking Studies, and Biological Efficacy of Rhizome Essential Oil Compositi...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Extraction
2.2 Analysis of the Oils
2.3 Isolation and Structural Elucidation of Zerumbone
2.3.1 Antimicrobial Activity
2.3.2 Docking Studies
3 Results
3.1 Isolation of Zerumbone from the Essential Oil
3.2 Anticancer Studies
3.3 Docking Studies
4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 31: Ficus talboti King: Antinociceptive and Anti-inflammatory Properties of Methanol Extract of Stem Bark
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection and Identification of Plant Material
2.2 Chemicals
2.3 Extraction of Plant Material
2.4 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening
2.5 Quantification of Total Phenolics, Tannins, and Flavonoids
2.6 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays
2.6.1 ABTS Radical Cation Scavenging Activity
2.6.2 Phosphomolybdenum Assay
2.6.3 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay
2.6.4 Metal Chelating Activity
2.6.5 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
2.7 Animals
2.8 Acute Toxicity
2.9 Assessment of Analgesic Potential
2.9.1 Hot Plate Method
2.9.2 Acetic Acid-Induced Abdominal Writhing Test
2.9.3 Formalin-Induced Nociceptive Behavior
2.10 Investigation of Anti-inflammatory Activity
2.10.1 Carrageenan-Induced Acute Paw Edema in Rats
2.10.2 Histamine-Induced Paw Edema
2.10.3 Egg Albumin-Induced Inflammation
2.10.4 Granuloma Induced Using Cotton Pellet
2.11 Phytochemical Analysis Through High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
2.12 Statistical Analysis of Data
3 Results
3.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Screening
3.2 Quantification Assays for Total Phenolics, Tannins, and Flavonoids
3.3 In Vitro Antioxidant Assays
3.4 Acute Toxicity
3.5 Analgesic Activity
3.5.1 Hot Plate Method
3.5.2 Acetic Acid-Induced Writhing Test
3.5.3 Formalin-Induced Paw Licking Test
3.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
3.6.1 Carrageenan-Induced Paw Edema in Rats
3.6.2 Histamine-Induced Paw Edema
3.6.3 Egg Albumin-Induced Paw Edema in Rats
3.6.4 Cotton Pellet-Induced Granuloma
3.7 HPLC Analysis of MEFt
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 32: Phytochemical and Antioxidant Analysis of Phellinus adamantinus and P. hohnelli
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection and Authentication of Fungal Material
2.2 Phytochemical Analysis
2.2.1 Preparation of Extracts From Fruit Bodies
2.2.2 Extractive Values
2.2.3 Qualitative Phytochemical Analysis
2.2.4 Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis: Determination of Total Phenolics, Tannins, and Flavonoid
2.2.5 In Vitro Antioxidant Studies
2.2.5.1 Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation
2.2.5.2 Superoxide Anion Radical Scavenging Activity
2.2.5.3 Free Radical Scavenging Activity on DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl)
2.2.5.4 Hydrogen Peroxide Scavenging Activity
3 Results
3.1 Percentage Yield
3.2 Qualitative Phytochemical Investigation
3.3 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity
3.3.1 Determination of Total Phenolics, Tannin, and Flavonoid Contents
3.3.2 Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation
3.3.3 Superoxide Radical Scavenging Activity
3.3.4 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
3.3.5 Hydrogen Peroxide Scavenging Activity
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Index