Nanoscale Engineering of Biomaterials: Properties and Applications

Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Introduction to Biomaterials
1: Interactions Between the Physiological Environment and Titanium-Based Implant Materials: From Understanding to Control
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Corrosion Resistance of Ti and Its Alloys in the Biological Environment
1.2.1 Principles of Corrosion of Ti and Its Alloys
1.2.2 Physiological Environments from a Corrosion Perspective
1.2.3 Pitting and Crevice Corrosion
1.2.4 Mechanically Assisted Corrosion Types
1.2.5 Selective, Galvanic, and Intergranular Corrosion
1.2.6 The Role of Cells, Proteins, and Reactive Oxygen Species
1.3 Ti Surfaces and Inflammatory Reaction
1.3.1 Host Response to Ti Surfaces
1.3.2 Surface Modifications for Inflammatory Control
1.3.3 Inflammatory Response and Corrosion Resistance
1.4 Ti Surfaces for Bone Integration and Infection Control
1.4.1 Recent Strategies to Combine Bioactivity and Antibacterial Activity
1.4.2 Mechanical Stability
1.4.3 Chemical Stability and Corrosion Resistance
1.4.4 Ion/Nanoparticles Release
1.5 Conclusions
References
2: Nanoscale Surface Engineering and Characterization of Biomaterials
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Scope of This Chapter
2.2 Surface Modification
2.2.1 Physical Modification
2.2.2 Chemical Modification
2.2.2.1 Plasma Treatment
2.2.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
2.2.2.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
2.2.2.4 Electrochemical Deposition (ECD)
2.2.2.5 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs)
2.2.2.6 Effect of Self-Assembled Monolayers on Protein Adsorption and Cell Adhesion
Organosilane SAMs Formation and Characterization Tools
Effect on Protein Adsorption
Effect on Cell Behavior
2.2.3 Biological Modification: Protein Immobilization
2.3 Techniques to Characterize Surface Modifications
2.3.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
2.3.2 Ellipsometry
2.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
2.3.4 Raman Spectrometer
2.3.5 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
2.3.6 Contact Angle Measurement
2.3.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)
2.3.8 Zeta Potential/Surface Charge
2.4 Conclusions
References
3: Progress of Nanotechnology-Based Detection and Treatment of Alzheimer´s Disease Biomarkers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biomarkers in AD
3.3 Nanotechnology in Early Detection of AD
3.3.1 Molecular Imaging Probes-Based Approach
3.3.1.1 Bio-Barcode Assay
3.3.1.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
3.3.1.3 NanoSIMS Microscopy
3.3.1.4 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) Microscopy
3.3.1.5 MRI and PET
3.3.2 Proteins Binding-Based Approach
3.3.2.1 Two-Photon Rayleigh Scattering Assay
3.3.2.2 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance
3.3.2.3 Electrochemical Sensor
3.3.2.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Sensor
3.4 Nanocarriers in Treatment of AD
3.4.1 Carbon-Based Nanocarriers
3.4.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes
3.4.1.2 Carbon Dots
3.4.1.3 Graphene Quantum Dots
3.4.2 Dendrimers
3.4.3 Nanoparticles
3.4.3.1 Gold Nanoparticles
3.4.3.2 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
3.4.3.3 Nanogels and Polymeric Nanoparticles
3.4.4 Liposomes and Lipid NPs
3.5 Conclusion and Future Strategies
References
4: Biomaterials: Types and Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Biomaterials
4.2.1 Metallic Biomaterials
4.2.2 Polymeric Biomaterials
4.2.3 Ceramic Biomaterials
4.2.4 Composite Biomaterials
4.3 Biomaterials for Implant Fabrication
4.3.1 Features of Ideal Biomaterials
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Orthopaedic Implants
4.4.2 Tissue Engineering
4.5 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
Part II: Surface Engineering of Metallic Biomaterials
5: Overview of Current Additive Manufacturing Technologies for Titanium Bioimplants
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Additive Manufacturing of Ti Bioimplants
5.2.1 Laser Metal Deposition
5.2.2 Selective Laser Melting
5.2.3 Electron Beam Melting
5.3 Challenges in AM of Ti Bioimplants
5.4 Methods to Control Ti Bioimplant Failure
5.5 Conclusion
References
6: Physico-chemical Modifications of Magnesium and Alloys for Biomedical Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Metallic Biomaterials, Surfaces and Biocompatibility
6.1.2 Surface Properties and Analysis
6.1.3 Insight into the Biological Activity of the Surfaces of the Implant
6.1.4 Magnesium and Its Alloys as Biomedical Materials
6.1.5 Limitations with Mg-Based Implants
6.2 Surface Modification Techniques of Mg-Based Implants
6.2.1 Physico-chemical Modification of Mg and Its Alloys
6.2.1.1 Coating/Film Deposition Techniques
Polymer/Polymer-Based Composite Coatings
Calcium-Phosphate (Ca-P)-Based Compound Coatings
Plasma Surface Modification
6.2.1.2 Coating-Free Techniques
Micro-Arc Oxidation method (MAO)
Anodisation
Laser Surface Modification
6.3 Effect of Physico-chemical Modifications on Implant Performance
6.3.1 Degradation Behaviour
6.3.2 Mechanical Integrity of the Coatings
6.3.3 Protein Adhesion Study
6.3.4 Wettability Study
6.3.5 Biocompatibility Study
6.4 Summary, Challenges and Future Directions
References
7: Metallic Foams in Bone Tissue Engineering
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of an Ideal Metallic Foam
7.2.1 Biological and Structural Prerequisites for an Ideal Scaffold for Tissue Engineering
7.2.2 Biocompatibility
7.2.3 Biodegradability
7.2.4 Porosity
7.2.5 Mechanical Performance
7.2.6 Structural Morphology
7.3 Non-biodegradable Metallic Foams
7.3.1 Titanium-Based Foams
7.3.2 Tantalum-Based Foams
7.3.3 Nickel-Titanium Alloy (Nitinol)
7.4 Biodegradable Metallic Foams
7.5 Metallic Foams for Cell Culture
7.6 Concluding Remarks
References
8: Surface Modification of Metallic Biomaterials for Cardiovascular Cells Regulation and Biocompatibility Improvement
8.1 Introduction
8.2 What Really Happened for DES in the Cardiovascular Microenvironment?
8.3 Strategies of Surface Modification with ECM
8.3.1 Surface Modification Aiming at EC
8.3.2 Surface Modification Aiming at EPC
8.4 A Novel Discovery and the Concept ``Spatio-temporal Orderliness of Function´´
8.5 Surface Modification of Cardiovascular Metallic Biomaterials with Nanoscale Structures
8.6 A Viewpoint and Perspectives
References
9: Advancement of Spinel Ferrites for Biomedical Application
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Prelude to Magnetism
9.2.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials
9.2.2 Magnetic Domains and Superparamagnetism
9.2.2.1 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls
9.2.2.2 Superparamagnetism
9.2.3 Anisotropy in Magnetic Materials
9.2.3.1 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy
9.3 Theory of Ferrites
9.3.1 Non-spinel Ferrites
9.3.2 Spinel Ferrites
9.3.2.1 Cationic Distribution in Spinel Ferrite
9.3.3 Magnetic Ordering
9.3.3.1 Néel Theory of Ferrimagnetism
9.3.3.2 Yafet-Kittel Theory
9.4 Applications
9.4.1 Magnetic Hyperthermia
9.4.1.1 Mechanisms for Heat Generations
9.4.1.2 Properties Influencing the Heat Generation
9.4.2 Drug Delivery
9.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
9.5 Conclusions
References
Part III: Surface Engineering of Polymeric Biomaterials
10: Functionalized 3D Bioactive Polymeric Materials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Requirements for a 3D Scaffold
10.2 Functionalized 3D Bioactive Polymeric Materials
10.3 Synthetic/Natural Biomaterials Actively Assisting in Tissue Engineering
10.3.1 Poly(l-Lactic Acid)
10.3.2 Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic) Acid
10.3.3 Polycaprolactone
10.3.4 Collagen
10.3.5 Chitosan Polymer
10.4 Applications of Functionalized 3D Bioactive Polymeric Materials
10.4.1 Neuron Regeneration
10.4.1.1 Functionalization Strategies for the Development of Conducting Polymers
10.4.2 Bone Regeneration
10.4.3 Muscular Regeneration
10.4.4 Tendon/Ligament Regeneration
10.5 A Viewpoint
References
11: Polymer Matrixes Used in Wound Healing Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Forms of Polymer Matrixes Used in Wound Healing Applications
11.2.1 Zero-Dimensional Polymer Matrix
11.2.2 1D Polymer Matrix
11.2.3 2D Polymer Matrix
11.2.4 3D Polymer Matrix
11.2.4.1 Scaffold
11.2.4.2 Fibrous Scaffold
11.2.4.3 Microspheres Scaffold
11.2.4.4 Hydrocolloids
11.3 Natural Polymer-Based Matrixes
11.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Matrixes
11.3.1.1 Cellulose
11.3.1.2 Alginate
11.3.1.3 Chitin and Chitosan
11.3.1.4 Chondroitin
11.3.1.5 Hyaluronic Acid
11.3.2 Protein-Based Matrixes
11.3.2.1 Collagen
11.3.2.2 Gelatin
11.3.2.3 Keratin
11.3.2.4 Silk Fibroin
11.3.2.5 Soy Protein
11.4 Synthetic Polymer-Based Matrixes
11.4.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
11.4.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
11.4.3 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
11.4.4 Polyacrylic Acid (PAA)
11.4.5 Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
11.4.6 Polycaprolactone (PCL)
11.4.7 Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
11.5 Polymer Blend Matrixes
11.5.1 Natural-Natural Polymer Blend Matrixes
11.5.1.1 Chitosan-Starch
11.5.1.2 Collagen-Chitosan
11.5.1.3 Chitosan-Gelatin
11.5.1.4 Alginate-Chitosan
11.5.1.5 Cellulose-Alginate
11.5.2 Synthetic-Synthetic Polymer Blend Matrixes
11.5.2.1 PLA-Synthetic Polymer Blend
11.5.2.2 PVA-Synthetic Polymer Blend
11.5.2.3 PCL-PVP
11.5.2.4 PCL-PLA
11.5.3 Natural-Synthetic Polymer Blend Matrixes
11.5.3.1 Chitosan-PVA
11.5.3.2 Chitosan-PEG
11.5.3.3 Alginate-PVA
11.5.3.4 Silk-PVA
11.5.3.5 Gelatin-PEG
11.6 Future Aspects
11.7 Conclusion
References
12: Conductive Polymers for Cardiovascular Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Conductive Polymers
12.2.1 pi-Conjugated Polymers
12.2.2 Ion-Conductive Polymers
12.3 Synthesis Techniques for the CPs
12.3.1 Electrochemical Methods for the Synthesis of PCPs
12.3.2 Chemical Methods for theSynthesis of PCPs
12.3.2.1 Chemical Oxidative Polymerization
12.3.2.2 Cross-Coupling Polymerization
12.3.2.3 Grignard Metathesis (GRIM) Polymerization
12.3.3 Synthesis Techniques for the ICPs
12.4 Physicochemical Properties of Conductive Polymers for Biomedical Applications
12.4.1 Some Properties Common to All CPs
12.4.2 Enhancing the Properties of the CPs
12.5 Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs)
12.6 Conductive Polymers in Action
12.6.1 Diagnosis and Prognosis
12.6.1.1 ECG Monitoring
12.6.1.2 Blood Pressure and Heartbeat Rate Monitoring
12.6.1.3 Detection of Biomarkers Related to Cardiac Failure
12.6.2 Therapeutics
12.6.2.1 Cardiac Action Potential and Ion Transport
12.6.2.2 Stem Cell Studies
12.6.2.3 Pacemaker
12.6.2.4 Cardiac Implant
12.6.2.5 Cardiac Tissue Engineering
12.6.2.6 Conductive Cardiac Patches
12.7 Current Challenges in the Field
12.7.1 Biodegradability
12.7.2 Conductivity
12.7.3 Biocompatibility
12.8 Future Perspective
References
13: Engineered Polymeric Materials/Nanomaterials for Growth Factor/Drug Delivery in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Fracture Healing
13.1.2 Role of Growth Factors, Drugs, and Other Biomolecules in Bone Regeneration
13.1.3 General Requirements of Matrix/Scaffolds for Growth Factor/Drug Delivery
13.2 Challenges
13.3 Materials for Growth Factor/Drug Delivery
13.3.1 Metals and Ceramics-Based Materials
13.3.2 Polymeric Materials
13.3.2.1 Natural Polymers
13.3.2.2 Synthetic Polymers
13.3.3 Polymer Composites
13.4 Encapsulation of Growth Factors/Drugs in Polymeric Materials and Nanomaterials
13.4.1 Physical Immobilization
13.4.2 Chemical Conjugation/Tethering
13.5 Engineered Polymeric Materials/Nanomaterials for Growth Factor/Drug Delivery
13.5.1 Structure-Based Delivery Systems
13.5.1.1 Polymer-Growth Factor/Drug Conjugates and Nano/Microparticles
13.5.1.2 Polymeric Nanofibers
13.5.1.3 Gels/Hydrogels
13.5.1.4 3D-Printed Scaffolds
13.5.2 Stimuli-Responsive Delivery Systems
13.5.2.1 pH Responsive
13.5.2.2 Temperature Sensitive
13.5.2.3 Biomolecule Sensitive
13.5.2.4 Redox Responsive
13.5.2.5 Magnetic/Electromechanical/Light Responsive
13.6 Conclusions
References
14: Surface Engineering of Polymeric Materials for Bone Tissue Engineering
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biological Response to Implanted Biomaterial
14.3 Fabrication-Based Surface Engineering
14.3.1 Electrospinning
14.3.2 3D Printing
14.3.3 Hydrogels
14.3.4 Microparticles
14.3.5 Gas Foaming
14.3.6 Freeze-Drying
14.4 Response to Mechanical Stimulus
14.5 Surface Topography
14.6 Hydrophilicity
14.7 Microcontact Printing
14.8 Surface Charge
14.8.1 Langmuir-Blodgett Film
14.9 Biomimetic Approach for Surface Modification
14.10 Effect of Incorporation of Ions
14.11 Effect of Carbon-Based Fillers for Bone Tissue Engineering
14.11.1 Graphene
14.11.2 Carbon Nanotubes
14.11.3 Carbon Dots
14.11.4 Fullerenes
14.11.5 Nanodiamonds
14.12 Protein Adsorption
14.12.1 miRNA Immobilization
14.13 Chemical Modification
14.13.1 Ozone Treatment
14.13.2 Silanization
14.13.3 Fluorination
14.13.4 Wet Treatment
14.13.5 Flame Treatment
14.14 Radiation-Induced Surface Modification
14.14.1 Laser
14.14.2 Ion Beam
14.14.3 Gamma Radiation
14.14.4 UV-Induced Photoactivation
14.14.5 Electron Beam Lithography
14.14.6 Plasma Radiation
14.15 Conclusion
References
15: Antibacterial Surface Modification to Prevent Biofilm Formation on Polymeric Biomaterials
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Polymeric Biomaterials
15.2.1 Problems of Using Polymeric Biomaterials Without Surface Modification
15.2.2 Polymeric Biomaterials Surface Properties and Morphology
15.2.2.1 Surface Free Energy and Hydrophilicity
15.2.2.2 Adhesiveness and Functional Groups of Surface
15.2.2.3 Morphology of Polymeric Biomaterials Surface
15.3 Biofilm
15.3.1 Reason for Biofilm Formation
15.3.2 Biofilm Growth
15.3.2.1 Biofilm Adhesion
15.3.2.2 Biofilm Formation
15.3.2.3 Biofilm Maturation
Stage I
Stage II
15.3.2.4 Detachment/Dispersion of Biofilm
15.3.3 Infections Due to Biofilm Formation
15.3.3.1 Biofilm-Associated Infections
Urinary Infection
Prosthetic Joint Infection
Cardiac Valve Infection
Dental Implant Infection
Bone Implant Infections
15.3.3.2 Non-device-Associated Infections
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
Dental Infection
Wounds
Bone Infection
15.4 Improvement of Antibacterial Properties of Polymeric Biomaterials by Surface Modifications
15.4.1 Physical Methods
15.4.1.1 Physical Adsorption
15.4.1.2 Surface Micro- and Nanopatterning
15.4.1.3 Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) Film Deposition
15.4.2 Chemical Methods
15.4.2.1 Ozone Treatment
15.4.2.2 Silanization
15.4.2.3 Fluorination
15.4.2.4 Wet Treatments
15.4.2.5 Flame Treatment
15.4.3 Biological Methods
15.4.4 Radiation Methods
15.5 Mechanism of Preventing Biofilm Formation
15.5.1 Bacteria Repelling Mechanism
15.5.1.1 Hydrophilic Surfaces
15.5.1.2 Charged Surfaces
15.5.1.3 Superhydrophobic Surfaces
15.5.2 Bacterial-Killing Mechanism
15.5.2.1 Contact-Based Antibacterial Surfaces
15.5.2.2 Release-Based Antibacterial Surfaces
15.5.2.3 Nanopatterned Surfaces with Antibacterial Behavior
15.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
16: Polymer Surface Engineering in the Food Packaging Industry
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Polymers for Food Packaging Applications
16.2.1 Synthetic Non-biodegradable Polymers
16.2.2 Chemically Synthesized Biodegradable Polymers
16.2.3 Natural Biopolymers
16.2.4 Polymer Nanocomposites
16.3 Surface Engineering Technologies
16.4 Polymer Surface Engineering Routes
16.4.1 Mechanical Routes
16.4.2 Physical Routes
16.4.3 Wet-Chemical Routes
16.5 Polymer Surface Engineering for Food Packaging Application
16.5.1 Packaging with Improved Mechanical and Barrier Properties
16.5.2 Active Packaging
16.5.3 Smart/Intelligent Packaging
16.5.4 Packaging Derived from Biopolymers
16.6 Summary
References
17: Polymeric Membranes in Wastewater Treatment
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Conventional Methods for Wastewater Treatment
17.2.1 Chemical Precipitation
17.2.1.1 Hydroxide Precipitation
17.2.1.2 Sulfide Precipitation
17.2.1.3 Carbonate Precipitation
17.2.2 Ion-Exchange Method
17.2.3 Adsorption
17.2.4 Biological Treatment
17.3 Polymeric Membranes
17.3.1 Classification of Polymeric Membranes and Their Applications
17.3.1.1 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
17.3.1.2 Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis
17.3.1.3 Challenges Associated with Polymeric Membranes
17.4 Outlook and Conclusions
References
18: Functionalized Fluoropolymer Membrane for Fuel Cell Applications
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Fundamentals of Fuel Cell Technology
18.2.1 Fuel Cell Requirement and Assembly
18.2.2 Fuel Cell Efficiency
18.2.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Its Properties for PEMFCs
18.3 Fabrication Method of the Polymer Electrolyte Membranes
18.3.1 Functionalized Membrane Preparation Via Radiation-Induced Grafting
18.3.2 Functionalized to Prepare Chemical Modified Membrane
18.3.3 Blend and Composites Membrane
18.4 Fundamental Aspects of Functionalized Membrane for PEMFCs
18.4.1 Proton Conductivity (km) and Activation Energy (Ea)
18.4.2 Methanol and Gas Permeability (P)
18.4.3 Water Uptake (WU) and Ion Exchange Capacity (IEC)
18.5 Fuel Cell Stack and Electrical Efficiency of Membrane: DMFCs
18.6 Perspective and Future Scope of Fluoropolymer Membrane
18.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Surface Engineering of Ceramic and Composite Biomaterials
19: Bioceramics for Biomedical Applications
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Classification and Generations of Bioceramics
19.3 Properties of Bioceramics
19.4 Few Examples of Bioceramics
19.5 Applications of Bioceramics
19.5.1 Tissue Engineering
19.5.2 Delivery Systems
19.5.3 Hyperthermia and Imaging
19.5.4 Antifouling Property
19.6 Conclusion
References
20: Applications of Nanomaterials in the Textile Industry
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Early Days of Nanomaterials in the Textile Industry
20.3 Applied Nanomaterials in Textiles
20.3.1 Nanotubes
20.3.2 Nanodiamonds
20.3.3 Nanoclays and Silica Nanoparticles
20.3.4 Metallic Nanoparticles
20.3.5 Biological Nanomaterials
20.3.6 Graphene
20.3.7 Nanomaterials for Textile Waste Treatment
20.4 Commercialized Products
20.5 A Matter of Cost
20.6 Issue of Toxicity
20.7 Going Forward
References
21: Properties and Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Classification
21.2.1 Based on Matrix Materials
21.2.1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
21.2.1.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
21.2.1.3 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
21.2.2 Based on Reinforcing Materials
21.2.2.1 Particulate Composites
21.2.2.2 Flake Composites
21.2.2.3 Fiber Composites
21.2.2.4 Nanocomposites
21.2.2.5 Foamed Composites
21.2.2.6 Biocomposites
21.3 Manufacturing Process
21.3.1 Compression Molding
21.3.2 Reaction Injection Molding
21.3.3 Resin Transfer Molding
21.3.4 Filament Winding
21.3.5 Lay-Up Manufacturing
21.3.6 Spray-Up Manufacturing
21.4 Properties of Advanced Composite Materials
21.4.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
21.4.1.1 Weight and Density
21.4.1.2 Hygroscopic Sensitivity
21.4.1.3 Thermal Stability
21.4.1.4 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
21.4.1.5 Magnetic Permeability
21.4.1.6 Corrosion and Erosion Resistance
21.4.1.7 Environmental Friendliness
21.4.2 Mechanical Properties
21.4.2.1 Tensile Strength
21.4.2.2 Flexural Strength and Modulus
21.4.2.3 Fracture Toughness
21.4.2.4 Impact Strength
21.4.2.5 Fatigue Endurance
21.4.2.6 Hardness
21.4.3 Comparison of Properties of Different Types of Advanced Composite Materials
21.5 Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
21.5.1 Tensile Strength Testing
21.5.2 Compression Testing
21.5.3 Shear Testing
21.5.4 Flexure Testing
21.5.5 Hardness Testing
21.5.6 Impact Testing
21.5.7 Thermo-Elastic Testing
21.5.8 Open-Hole Tension Testing
21.5.9 Microstructural Analysis
21.6 Applications
21.6.1 Biomedical Applications
21.6.2 Aerospace
21.6.3 Electronics
21.7 Conclusion
References
22: Insight of Iron Oxide-Chitosan Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Major Challenges in Drug Delivery
22.2.1 Current Obstacles
22.2.2 Advances in Drug Delivery
22.2.2.1 Oral Drug Delivery
22.2.2.2 Nasal Drug Delivery
22.2.2.3 Transdermal Drug Delivery
22.2.2.4 Encapsulation Methods
22.3 Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites in Drug Delivery
22.3.1 Nanocomposites Based on Chitosan and Montmorillonite (Clay)
22.3.2 Nanocomposites Based on Chitosan and Magnetic Nanoparticles
22.3.3 Nanocomposites Based on Chitosan and Carbon Nanotubes
22.3.4 Nanocomposites Based on Derivatized Chitosan
22.3.5 Nanocomposites Based on Chitosan and Synthetic Polymers
22.3.6 Nanocomposites Based on Chitosan and Other Biopolymers
22.4 Iron Oxide-Chitosan Nanocomposites in Drug Delivery
22.5 Characterization of Iron Oxide-Chitosan Nanocomposites
22.5.1 SEM/TEM/SAED Analysis of Iron Oxide and Nanocomposite Film
22.5.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
22.5.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) Analysis
22.5.4 Surface Thermodynamics with the Development of Polymeric Coating
22.5.5 Magnetic Properties
22.5.6 Thermogravimetric (TGA) Analysis
22.6 Conclusion
References
23: Nanocomposites Application in Sewage Treatment and Degradation of Persistent Pesticides Used in Agriculture
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Nanotechnology Application in Water Cleanup
23.3 Nanotechnologies´ Advancement
23.4 Main ehicles of Nano-Based Effluent Treatment Are Nano-Adsorbent
23.5 Nano-Adsorbents
23.5.1 Nanopolymers (Dendrimers)
23.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
23.5.3 Metal Nanoparticles
23.5.4 Zeolite
23.5.5 Nanostructured Membranes
23.5.6 Nanoreactive Membrane Filters: Dendrimers
23.5.7 Biopolymer-Based Nanomaterials
23.6 Nanotechnology Application in Agricultural Pesticide Degradation
23.7 Degradation Mechanism of Contaminants by Nanocomposites
23.8 Nanoparticles Role in Pesticide Degradation by Photocatalysts
23.9 Nanomaterials in Photocatalysis
23.9.1 Graphene Oxide (GO)
23.9.2 Carbon Nanotubes
23.9.3 Metallic Nanocomposites
23.10 Degradation of Organochlorine by Nanoparticles
23.11 Organochlorine Photolysis Mechanism by Nanoparticles
23.11.1 Mechanism of Organochlorine Photocatalytical Degradation
23.11.2 Degradation of Organophosphorous Pesticides by Nanocomposites
23.11.3 Photocatalytical Degradation Mechanism of Organophosphates by Nanoparticles
23.12 Conclusion
References
24: Biomimetic Mineralization of Electrospun PCL-Based Composite Nanofibrous Scaffold for Hard Tissue Engineering
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Mineralization of PCL-Based Scaffolds
24.3 Synthesis of Mineralized PCL-Based Scaffolds Via Electrospinning
24.4 Postelectrospinning Approach to Synthesize Mineralized PCL-Based Scaffolds
24.4.1 Preparation of Simulated Body Fluid (SBF)
24.4.2 Techniques to Assess Mineralization
24.4.2.1 Electron Microscopy
24.4.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis
24.4.2.3 XRD Patterns
24.4.2.4 Alizarin Red S Staining (ARS Staining)
24.5 Recent Advances on Electrospun PCL-Based Structure for Mineralization
24.6 Limitation and Future Perspective
24.7 Conclusions
References