Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics

Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics
Contents
List of Contributors
Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment
CubeSat Engineering Design Standard
Evolution History of the CubeSat Program
Today: The CubeSat Concept
The Future of the CubeSat Concept
Introduction by the Editors
1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates
1.3 The First Nanosatellites
1.4 The Large Space Era
1.5 The New Space Era
1.5.1 Technology Development
1.5.2 Commercial Nanosatellites and Constellations
1.6 Summary
References
2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History
2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications
2.4 Hardware
2.4.1 Components
2.4.2 Brief History of On-board Computers
2.4.3 Processors
2.4.4 Mass Memory
2.4.5 Bus
2.5 Design
2.5.1 System Architecture
2.5.2 Central Versus Distributed Processing
2.5.3 Design Criteria
2.5.4 Definition of Requirements
2.5.5 Resource Estimation and Data Budget
2.5.6 Commanding
2.5.7 Telemetry
2.5.8 Time Generation
2.5.9 Handling of Errors
2.5.10 Radiation Effects
References
3 I-2b Operational Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 RTOS Overview
3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite
3.3.1 Requirements
3.4 Example Projects
3.5 Conclusions
References
4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination
4.1 Introduction
4.2 ADCS Fundamentals
4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods
4.4 ADCS Background Theory
4.4.1 Coordinate Frame Definitions
4.4.2 Attitude Kinematics
4.4.3 Attitude Dynamics
4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination
4.5.1 TRIAD Quaternion Determination
4.5.2 Kalman Rate Estimator
4.5.3 Full-State Extended Kalman Filter Estimator
4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers
4.6.1 Detumbling Magnetic Controllers
4.6.2 Y-Momentum Wheel Controller
4.6.3 Three-axis Reaction Wheel Controller
4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware
4.7.1 Three-Axis Magnetometers
4.7.2 Sun Sensors
4.7.3 Star Trackers
4.7.4 MEMS Rate Sensors
4.7.5 Magnetorquers
4.7.6 Reaction/Momentum Wheels
4.7.7 Orbit Control Sensors and Actuators
4.7.8 Integrated ADCS Modules
References
5 I-2d Propulsion Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Propulsion Elements
5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems
5.4 Propulsion System Technologies
5.4.1 Chemical Propulsion Technologies
5.4.2 Electric Propulsion Technologies
5.5 Mission Elements
5.5.1 Orbit Change
5.5.2 Drag Compensation
5.5.3 Deorbiting
5.5.4 Attitude Control
5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems
5.7 Future Prospect
References
6 I-2e Communications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Regulatory Considerations
6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics
6.3.1 Digital Modulation
6.4 Channel Coding
6.4.1 Convolutional Codes
6.4.2 Block Codes
6.5 Data Link Layer
6.6 Hardware
6.6.1 Antennas
6.6.2 Oscillators
6.6.3 PLLs and Synthesizers
6.6.4 Mixers
6.6.5 Receiver
6.6.6 Transmitter
6.6.7 Transceivers
6.7 Testing
6.7.1 Modulation Quality
6.7.2 Power Measurement
6.7.3 Spectrum Analysis
References
7 I-2f Structural Subsystem
7.1 Definition and Tasks
7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats
7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design
7.4 Design Parameters and Tools
7.4.1 Structural Design Parameters
7.4.2 Thermal Design Considerations
7.5 Design Challenges
7.6 Future Prospects
References
8 I-2g Power Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array
8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries
8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT
8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops
8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches
8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem
8.8 DC/DC Converters
8.8.1 Buck Converter
8.8.2 Boost Converter
8.8.3 SEPIC Converter
8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection
8.10 Conclusions
References
9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Thermal Challenges
9.2 Typical Thermal Loads
9.2.1 Heat Exchange Calculation
9.2.2 Thermal Environment in Earth Orbit
9.3 Active and Passive Designs
9.3.1 Surface Finishes
9.3.2 Insulation
9.3.3 Radiators
9.3.4 Interface Connections and Heat Pipes
9.3.5 Electrical Heaters
9.4 Design Approach and Tools
9.4.1 Numerical Methods
9.4.2 Modeling Approaches
9.4.3 Model Uncertainty and Margins
9.4.4 Thermal Design Tools
9.5 Thermal Tests
9.5.1 Types of Thermal Test
9.5.2 Guidelines for Thermal-Vacuum Test Preparations
References
10 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process
10.2.1 Architecture Development Process
10.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers
10.4 ECSS and Other Standards
10.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources
10.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites
References
11 I-2j Integration and Testing
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Integration
11.1.2 Testing
11.2 Overall Tasks
11.2.1 Integration Tasks
11.2.2 Testing Tasks
11.3 Typical Flow
11.4 Test Philosophies
11.4.1 Test Stages
11.4.2 Test Models
11.4.3 Test Philosophies
11.5 Typical System Integration Process
11.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities
11.6.1 Typical Test Parameters
11.6.2 Typical Test Facilities
11.7 Burden of Integration and Testing
11.7.1 I&T Costs
11.7.2 I&T Schedule
11.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing
References
12 I-3a Scientific Payloads
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Categorization
12.3 Imagers
12.3.1 MCubed-2/COVE
12.3.2 SwissCube
12.3.3 AAReST
12.4 X-ray Detectors
12.4.1 MinXSS
12.4.2 HaloSat
12.4.3 HERMES
12.4.4 CXBN
12.4.5 MiSolFA
12.5 Spectrometers
12.5.1 SOLSTICE
12.5.2 OPAL
12.5.3 Lunar IceCube/BIRCHES
12.5.4 GRIFEX
12.5.5 HyperCube
12.6 Photometers
12.6.1 XPS
12.6.2 BRITE—Photometer
12.6.3 ExoPlanet and ASTERIA
12.7 GNSS Receivers
12.7.1 CYGNSS
12.7.2 CADRE
12.7.3 ³Cat 2
12.8 Microbolometers
12.8.1 CSIM
12.9 Radiometers
12.9.1 TEMPEST
12.10 Radar Systems
12.10.1 RAX
12.10.2 Radar Altimeters and SAR (EO)
12.10.3 SRI-Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES)
12.11 Particle Detectors
12.11.1 REPTile
12.11.2 EPISEM
12.11.3 FIRE
12.12 Plasma Wave Analyzers
12.12.1 CADRE/WINCS
12.12.2 Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment (DICE)
12.12.3 INSPIRE/CVHM
12.13 Biological Detectors
12.13.1 OREOS
12.14 Solar Sails
12.15 Conclusions
References
13 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Activities of Space Agencies
13.2.1 NASA
13.2.2 ESA
13.2.3 DLR
13.3 Nanosatellites
13.3.1 IOV/IOD Providers
13.3.2 SSTL
13.3.3 Alba Orbital
13.3.4 GAUSS Srl
13.3.5 Open Cosmos
13.3.6 Deep Space ESA Calls
13.4 Microsatellites
13.4.1 BIRD and TET
13.4.2 TDS
13.4.3 Euro IOD
13.5 ISS
13.5.1 NanoRacks
13.5.2 Bartolomeo
13.5.3 ICE Cubes
13.5.4 Starlab
References
14 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Satellites and Project-based Learning
14.2.1 A Brief History of Educational Satellite Projects
14.2.2 Project Classification
14.3 University Satellite Programs
14.3.1 Aalborg University
14.3.2 Technische Universität Berlin
14.3.3 University of Tokyo
14.4 Outcome and Success Criteria
14.5 Teams and Organizational Structure
14.6 Challenges and Practical Experiences
14.6.1 Staff Turnover
14.6.2 Development of Multidisciplinary Skills
14.6.3 External Experts
14.6.4 Project Documentation
14.6.5 Testing
14.6.6 Software
14.6.7 Ground Station
14.7 From Pure Education to Powerful Research Tools
References
15 I-3d Formations of Small Satellites
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Constellations and Formations
15.2.1 Definitions for Multivehicle Systems
15.3 Orbit Dynamics
15.4 Satellite Configurations
15.4.1 Definition of Walker Delta Pattern Constellation
15.5 Relevant Specific Small Satellite Technologies to Enable Formations
15.5.1 Intersatellite Communication
15.5.2 Relative Navigation
15.5.3 Attitude and Orbit Control
15.6 Application Examples
15.7 Test Environment for Multisatellite Systems
15.8 Conclusions for Distributed Nanosatellite Systems
Acknowledgments
References
16 I-3e Precise, Autonomous Formation Flight at Low Cost
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Formation Flight Background
16.2 Mission Overview
16.3 System Overview
16.3.1 Propulsion
16.3.2 Intersatellite Link
16.3.3 Algorithms
16.3.4 OASYS
16.3.5 RelNav
16.3.6 FIONA
16.4 Launch and Early Operations
16.4.1 Drift Recovery and Station Keeping
16.5 Formation Control Results
16.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17 I-4a Launch Vehicles—Challenges and Solutions
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Past Nanosatellite Launches
17.3 Launch Vehicles Commonly Used by Nanosatellites
17.4 Overview of a Typical Launch Campaign
17.5 Launch Demand
17.6 Future Launch Concepts
References
18 I-4b Deployment Systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Definition and Tasks
18.3 Basics of Deployment Systems
18.3.1 POD Technical Requirements
18.3.2 POD Testing Requirements
18.4 State of the Art
18.4.1 P-POD
18.4.2 T-POD
18.4.3 XPOD Separation System
18.4.4 ISIPOD CubeSat Deployers
18.4.5 QuadPack ISIS Deployer
18.4.6 SPL/DPL/TPL/6U/12U of Astro- Und Feinwerktechnik Adlershof GmbH (Astrofein)
18.4.7 Canisterized Satellite Dispenser (CSD)
18.4.8 JEM-Small Satellite Orbital Deployer (J-SSOD)
18.4.9 Tokyo Tech Separation System and AxelShooter
18.5 Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
19 I-4c Mission Operations
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Organization of Mission Operations
19.3 Goals and Functions of Mission Operations
19.3.1 Mission Database Operations Functions
19.3.2 Mission Operations Support Functions
19.4 Input and Output of Mission Operations
19.4.1 MAR
19.4.2 MOCD
19.4.3 SSUM
19.5 MOP
19.5.1 Suggestions to Write a MOP
19.6 Costs and Operations
References
Further Reading
20 I-5 Mission Examples
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Mission Types
20.2.1 Educational Missions
20.2.2 Technology Demonstration Missions
20.2.3 Science Missions
20.2.4 Commercial Missions
20.3 Mission Examples
20.3.1 Educational Missions
20.3.2 Technology Demonstration
20.3.3 Science Missions
20.3.4 Commercial Missions
20.4 Constellations
20.4.1 STARLING
20.4.2 Sky and Space Global
20.5 Perspective
References
21 II-1 Ground Segment
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Ground Segment Functionalities
21.3 Ground Segment Architecture
21.4 Ground Station Elements
21.4.1 Radio Frequency Equipment
21.4.2 Structural Elements and Rotor
21.5 Ground Segment Software
21.5.1 Orbit Propagation Software
21.5.2 Tracking Software
21.5.3 Communications Software
21.5.4 Mission Planning Tools
21.5.5 Mission Operations Console
21.5.6 Telemetry Analysis Tools
21.6 Ground Segment Operation
21.6.1 Usage Planning
21.6.2 Communication Access Execution
21.7 Future Prospects
21.7.1 SDR
21.7.2 Ground Station Automation
References
22 II-2 Ground Station Networks
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Technological Challenges
22.3 Visibility Clash Problems of Stations and Satellites
22.4 The Distributed Ground Station Network
22.5 Infrastructure
22.6 Planning and Scheduling
22.7 Generic Software Architecture
22.8 Example Networks
22.9 Traditional Ground Station Approach
22.10 Heterogeneous Ground Station Approach
22.11 Homogeneous Ground Station Approach
22.11.1 Automation and Optimization
22.12 Conclusions
References
23 II-3 Ground-based Satellite Tracking
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Orbital Element Sets
23.2.1 State Vectors
23.2.2 Two-line Elements
23.2.3 Keplerian Elements
23.3 Tracklet Generation from Ground Measurements
23.3.1 Perturbations
23.3.2 Sensor Types
23.3.3 Orbit Determination
23.4 Tracking CubeSats with Ground Stations
23.4.1 Vector Rotations
23.4.2 TLE to Keplerian Elements
23.4.3 Keplerian Elements to Perifocal Coordinates
23.4.4 Perifocal to ECI Coordinates
23.4.5 ECI to ECF coordinates
23.4.6 ECF to Ground Station AzEl Coordinates
23.5 Orbit Propagation
23.5.1 Numerical Orbit Propagation
23.5.2 Analytical Orbit Propagation
23.6 Principle of Operations of Ground Stations
23.6.1 Fundamentals of Antenna Technology
23.6.2 Tracking Software Examples and Features
23.6.3 Challenges in CubeSat Tracking
23.7 Summary
References
24 II-4a AMSAT
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Project OSCAR
24.2.1 OSCAR 1 Satellite (1961)
24.2.2 OSCAR 2 Satellite (1962)
24.2.3 OSCAR 3 Satellite (1965)
24.2.4 OSCAR 4 Satellite (1965)
24.3 AMSAT Satellite Designations
24.4 Other Notable AMSAT and OSCAR Satellites
24.4.1 OSCAR 7 Satellite, AO-7 (1974)
24.4.2 UoSAT-1 Satellite (UO-9) (1981)
24.4.3 ISS (ARISS) (1998–Present)
24.4.4 OSCAR 40 (AO-40) (2000)
24.4.5 SuitSat (AO-54) (2006)
24.5 The Development of CubeSats
24.6 FUNcube Satellites
24.7 Fox Satellites
24.8 GOLF Satellites
24.9 The IARU and ITU Resolution 659
References
24 II-4b New Radio Technologies
24.10 Introduction
24.11 SDR Space Segment
24.12 SDR Ground Segment
24.13 Modern Transmitter Design
Reference
25 III-1a Cost Breakdown for the Development of Nanosatellites
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Recurring Costs
25.2.1 Spacecraft Hardware
25.2.2 Integration and Testing
25.2.3 Launch, Operations, and Personnel
25.3 Nonrecurring Costs
25.3.1 Spacecraft Testing
25.3.2 Integration and Testing Facilities
25.3.3 Ground Station
25.3.4 Personnel
25.4 Satellite Cost-estimating Models
25.4.1 Nonparametric Cost-estimating Methods
25.4.2 Small Satellite Cost Model
25.4.3 NASA Air Force Cost Model (NAFCOM)
25.4.4 Other Models
25.5 Risk Estimation and Reduction
25.6 Conclusions
References
26 III-1b Launch Costs
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Launching Nanosatellites
26.2.1 Dedicated Launch
26.2.2 Piggyback Launch
26.2.3 Rideshare or Cluster Launch
26.2.4 ISS Deployment
26.3 Launch Sites
26.4 Launch Milestones
26.4.1 Launch Contract
26.4.2 Payload ICD
26.4.3 Hardware Delivery and Launch Campaign
26.5 Launch Cost
References
27 III-2a Policies and Regulations in Europe
27.1 Introduction
27.2 International Space Law
27.2.1 General—What Is International Space Law?
27.2.2 Key Treaty Provisions
27.3 National Laws and Practices in EU Member States
27.3.1 General—What Are National Space Laws?
27.3.2 Regulations, Official Forms, and Interpreting Guidelines
27.3.3 Additional International Legal Instruments and Their Relevance to National Space Laws
27.3.4 Applicability
27.3.5 Examples of European States that Made Specific Consideration for Small Satellite Missions in Their National Space Laws and Policies, with Respect to Third-party Liability Insurance
27.4 Future Regulation and Prospects
References
28 III-2b Policies and Regulations in North America
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Governing Treaties and Laws
28.2.1 The Space Treaties and International Conventions
28.2.2 International Telecommunications Union/International Organization
28.2.3 Domestic Policy Within the USA
28.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation
28.4 Space Traffic Management
28.5 Licensing of Radio Transmission from Space
28.5.1 Licensing Authorities
28.5.2 NTIA Origins and Range of Authority
28.5.3 FCC Origins and License Types
28.5.4 Choosing a Frequency
28.5.5 FCC License Fee Exemption—Government Entities
28.5.6 Coordination of Use of Amateur Frequencies
28.5.7 Amateur Licensing for Satellite Transmitters
28.5.8 Experimental Licensing for Satellite Transmitters
28.5.9 Part 25 Licensing for Satellite Transmitters
28.6 Licensing for Remote Sensing Activities from Space
28.6.1 Licensing Requirements
28.6.2 Fees, Timeline, and Post Issuance Obligations
28.7 Export Control Laws
28.7.1 General Principles, Requirements, and Common Misconceptions
28.7.2 Export Control Reform
28.8 Conclusion
28.8.1 International Efforts
28.8.2 US Efforts
28.8.3 New Space
References
29 III-2c International Organizations and International Cooperation
29.1 Introduction
29.2 The United Nations and Affiliated Organizations
29.2.1 General Considerations
29.2.2 UNCOPUOS and Space Law
29.3 International Telecommunications Union
29.4 Other United Nations Agencies and Bodies
29.4.1 UNITAR/UNOSAT
29.4.2 UNESCO
29.4.3 UNDP
29.4.4 UNEP
29.4.5 Other UN Agencies and Bodies
29.5 Non-UN Organizations
29.5.1 UNIDROIT
29.5.2 NATO and Military Nanosatellites
29.5.3 Intergovernmental Agreement on the International Space Station
29.6 Main Non-European Spacefaring Nations
29.6.1 USA
29.6.2 Russia
29.6.3 India
29.6.4 Canada
29.6.5 Japan
29.6.6 China
29.6.7 Developing Countries
29.7 Conclusions
References
30 III-3a Economy of Small Satellites
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Rethinking the Value Chain
30.3 A Hybrid Small Satellite Value Chain
30.3.1 Irreplaceability of Key Players
30.3.2 Interdependencies Between Small Satellite Industry Players
30.3.3 Some Segments are Passive or Only Planting Seeds
30.4 Evolution, Not Revolution?
30.5 The Economics at Play
30.6 Satellite Manufacturers
30.7 Launch Service Providers
30.8 Satellite Operators
30.9 Satellite Servicing Providers
30.10 Data and Solution Providers
30.11 A Shift Toward New Models
References
31 III-3b Economics and the Future
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Themes Shaping the Space Industry
31.2.1 Privatization of Space Activities
31.2.2 Making Space Accessible and Affordable
31.3 Megatrends
31.3.1 Launchers
31.3.2 Constellations
31.3.3 On-orbit and In-space Operations
31.3.4 Data
31.4 Conclusion: The Space Industry Is in Mutation
Further Reading
32 III-3c Networks of Nanosatellites
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Why Networks?
32.2.1 Background: Networks are Not New
32.2.2 LEO and MEO Networks
32.2.3 Constellations: One Type of Network
32.2.4 The Raison d’être of Networks of Small Satellites
32.2.5 Existing Networks
32.3 Opportunities for Networks of Nanosatellites
32.3.1 Network Trends
32.3.2 Nanosatellites in This Framework
32.4 Challenges and Issues
32.4.1 Overcapacity
32.4.2 Lack of Launch Opportunities
32.4.3 Space Debris
32.4.4 Regulatory
Reference
Further Reading
Index