Nanomaterials from Renewable Resources for Emerging Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
1. Introduction to Nanomaterials from Renewable Resources and Book Overview
1.1 Introduction to Nanotechnology - Classification, Extraction, and Applications
1.1.1 Classification of Nanofillers
1.1.2 Extraction of Nanofillers
1.1.2.1 Thermal Decomposition
1.1.2.2 Sputtering
1.1.2.3 Pyrolysis
1.1.2.4 Nanolithography
1.1.2.5 Spinning
1.1.2.6 Laser Ablation
1.1.2.7 Bio Synthesis
1.1.2.8 Chemical Vapour Deposition
1.1.2.9 Sol-Gel Process
1.2 Nano Fillers from Natural Biopolymers - Classification, Extraction, and Functionalization
1.2.1 Classification
1.2.1.1 Nano Polysaccharides
1.2.1.1.1 Extraction
1.2.1.1.2 Functionalization
1.2.1.2 Nanocellulose - Classification, Extraction, and Functionalization
1.2.1.3 Chitin and Chitosan - Introduction and Extraction
1.2.1.4 Nano Lignin
1.2.1.4.1 Classification
1.2.1.4.2 Extraction
1.2.1.4.3 Acid-Catalysed Condensation
1.2.1.4.4 Self-Assembly Method
1.3 Overview of the Applications of Green Nanomaterials
1.3.1 Green Packaging
1.3.1.1 Materials Used in Green Packaging
1.3.2 Biomedical Applications
1.3.3 Water Purification
1.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
2. Processing and Characterization of Nanocomposites Containing Green Nanofillers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Processing Methods of Composites Involving Green Nanofillers
2.2.1 Intercalation and Exfoliation
2.2.2 In-Situ Polymerization
2.2.3 Melt Processing
2.2.4 Solvent Casting
2.2.5 Electrospinning
2.2.6 Deposition/Layer Assembly
2.2.7 Sol-Gel Process
2.3 Characterization of Nanocomposites Involving Green Nanofillers
2.3.1 Spectroscopy Techniques
2.3.1.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
2.3.1.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
2.3.1.3 Raman Spectroscopy
2.3.1.4 Atomic Force Microscopy
2.3.1.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
2.3.2 Thermal Analysis Techniques
2.3.2.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
2.3.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
2.3.2.3 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)
2.3.2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
2.3.2.5 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
2.3.3 Microscopy Techniques
2.3.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
2.3.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
2.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Section I: Food Packaging
3. Developments in Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Source and Production of Chitosan
3.3 Functionalization of Chitosan
3.4 Chitosan-Based Composites Processing Techniques
3.4.1 Solution Casting
3.4.2 Coating
3.4.3 Layer-by-Layer Assembly
3.4.4 Extrusion
3.5 Antibacterial Nanocomposites
3.5.1 Chitosan-Natural Polymer Composites
3.5.2 Chitosan-Essential Oil Composites
3.5.3 Chitosan-Metal Nanoparticle Composite
3.5.4 Chitosan-Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites
3.5.5 Chitosan-Synthetic Polymer Composites
3.6 Barrier Nanocomposites
3.6.1 Nanocellulose-Chitosan Composite
3.6.2 Nanoclay-Chitosan Composites
3.6.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles-Chitosan Composites
3.7 Summary and Perspective
References
4. Recent Advancements in Barrier Properties of Lignin Nanomaterial-Based Composites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Lignin in the Food Packaging Industry
4.2.1 The Structure of Native Lignin
4.3 Lignin Nanoparticles (LNPS) in the Food-Packaging Industry
4.3.1 Main Types of Lignin Nanoparticles (LNPS)
4.3.2 Different Techniques Used in the Production of LNPS
4.3.3 Mechanical Properties of LNPS
4.3.3.1 The Mechanism of LNPS as an Antimicrobial Agent
4.4 The Modification of Food Packaging Plastic Materials Using Lignin Nanoparticles (LNPS)
4.4.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
4.4.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
4.4.3 Macroalgae
4.4.4 Silver Nanaoparticles (AgNPs)
4.5 Conclusions
References
5. Modified Hydrophobic Starch - An Alternate Green Nanomaterial for Packaging Industry
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Classification of BioPlastics (Based on Starch)
5.1.2 Plastic and Environment
5.1.3 Starch as a Sustainable Polymer
5.1.4 Starch Properties
5.1.5 The Green Context
5.1.6 Green Chemical Treatments of the Starch-Based Films
5.1.7 Hydrophobic Starch-Based Composite and Nanocomposite
5.2 Film-Forming Methods
5.2.1 Solution Casting (Wet Process)
5.2.2 Melt Processing (Dry Process)
5.2.3 Nanotechnology in Starch Food Packaging
5.3 Role of Hydrophobic Starch Packaging and Containers
5.3.1 Consumer and Industrial Products
5.3.2 Increasing Shelf Life of Goods
5.3.3 Challenges
5.4 Applications of Green Packaging Nanomaterial
5.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
6. Renewable Nanocomposites for Antibacterial Active Food Packaging
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Antimicrobial Agents in Active Food Packaging
6.2.1 Moisture Scavengers
6.2.2 Ethylene Absorbers
6.2.3 Oxygen Scavengers
6.2.4 Essential Oils (EOs)
6.2.5 Enzymes
6.2.6 Bacteriocins
6.2.7 Antimicrobial Polymers
6.3 Classification of Antimicrobial Films and Coatings According to Their Composition
6.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Films and Coatings
6.3.1.1 Starch
6.3.1.2 Cellulose
6.3.1.3 Chitin/Chitosan
6.3.1.4 Alginates
6.3.1.5 Carrageenan
6.3.2 Protein-Based Films and Coatings
6.3.2.1 Milk Proteins
6.3.2.2 Soy Proteins Isolates (SPI)
6.3.2.3 Wheat Protein
6.3.2.4 Collagen/Gelatin
6.3.3 Lipid-Based Films and Coatings
6.3.3.1 Waxes
6.3.3.2 Glycerides
6.4 Renewable Nanocomposites in Food Encapsulation
6.4.1 Comparison between Microencapsulation and Nanoencapsulation
6.4.2 Mechanisms of Release in Food Encapsulation
6.4.2.1 Diffusion
6.4.2.2 Osmosis
6.4.2.3 Erosion
6.4.2.4 Release by Swelling
6.4.2.5 Release by Fragmentation
6.4.2.6 Degradation
6.4.2.7 Dissolution Mechanism
6.5 Antimicrobial Bio-Nanocomposites for Food Packaging
6.5.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to the Source of Production
6.5.1.1 Biopolymers Extracted from Biomass
6.5.1.2 Biopolymers Synthesized from Biomass Derived Monomers
6.5.1.3 Biopolymers from Microorganisms
6.6 Biotechnology in Biopolymers Developments
6.6.1 Biotechnological Manufacturing of Adipic Acid from Lignin
6.6.2 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
6.6.3 Production of Protein-Based Polymers
6.7 Antimicrobial Activity of Different Fillers in Bio-Nanocomposites
6.7.1 Metallic-Based Antimicrobial Bio-Nanocomposites
6.7.2 Montmorillonite-Based Antimicrobial Bio-Nanocomposites
6.7.3 Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH)-Based Antimicrobial Bio-Nanocomposites
6.8 Safety of Different Antimicrobial Bio-Nanocomposites in Active Food Packaging Applications
6.8.1 Regulation of Migration Test
6.8.2 Experimental Approach for Migration Test
6.9 Antimicrobial Renewable Nanocomposites in Active Food Packaging Marketing
6.10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Section II: Energy Conservation/Conversion
7. Applications of Lignin in Energy Conversion: Solar Cells, Fuel Cells and Photocatalysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Applications of Lignin in Photovoltaic Devices
7.2.1 Lignin in Polymer Solar Cells
7.2.2 Lignin in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
7.2.3 Lignin in Perovskite Solar Cells
7.3 Applications of Lignin in Fuel Cells
7.3.1 Lignin as Fuel or Mediator in FC
7.3.2 Lignin as Membranes in FC
7.3.3 Lignin as Electrode Materials in FC
7.4 Applications of Lignin in Photocatalysis
7.4.1 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes
7.4.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Drugs
7.4.3 Photocatalytic Degradation of SO2 and CO2 Gas
7.5 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
8. Nanocellulose-Based Materials as Electrodes in Supercapacitors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Preparation of NC-Based Conductive Materials for Energy-Storage Devices
8.3 NC-Based Materials for Electrodes in Supercapacitor
8.3.1 NC-CPs Based Materials
8.3.1.1 Films
8.3.1.2 Aerogels
8.3.2 NC-Carbon-Based Materials
8.3.2.1 Films
8.3.2.2 Aerogels
8.3.3 NC/CP/Graphene/Metallic Particles-Based Composite Materials
8.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
9. Employment of Green Polysaccharide Nanoparticles in Electrolyte Membranes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of Polymer Electrolytes PEs
9.2.1 Dry-Solid Polymer Electrolytes (DSPEs)
9.2.2 Plasticized Polymer Electrolytes (PPEs)
9.2.3 Gel-Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs)
9.2.4 Composite-Polymer Electrolytes (CPEs)
9.3 Criteria of Membrane Selection
9.4 Chemical Modification of Polysaccharides
9.4.1 Examples of Chemically Modified and Combined Polysaccharides
9.4.1.1 Cellulose-Based PEM
9.4.1.2 Chitosan-Based PEM
9.4.1.3 Pectin-Based PEM
9.4.1.4 Carrageenan-Based PEM
9.4.1.5 Alginate-Based PEM
9.5 Sources of Polysaccharides Utilized as an Electrolyte Membrane
9.5.1 Algal Polysaccharides
9.5.2 Plant Polysaccharides
9.5.3 Bacterial Polysaccharides
9.6 A Variety of Applications Dealing with the Polysaccharide Electrolyte Membrane
9.6.1 Fuel Cells
9.6.2 Batteries
9.6.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
9.6.4 Supercapacitor
9.7 Challenges and Opportunities in Using Polysaccharides as Electrolyte Membranes
9.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
10. Nanocellulose-Based Separators for Energy Storage Devices
10.1 Introduction
10.2 NC-Based Separators for Batteries
10.2.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries
10.2.2 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
10.2.3 Lithium-Metal Batteries
10.3 NC-Based Separators for Supercapacitors
10.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
11. Employment of Nanolignin in Energy-Storage Devices
11.1 Energy Storage Technology
11.1.1 Related Work/Background
11.1.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs)
11.1.3 LIBs Anode Materials
11.1.4 LIBs Cathode Materials
11.2 Organic Electrodes for Batteries
11.2.1 Introduction and Principle
11.2.2 Quinones
11.2.3 Relation between Organic Electrodes Used in Lithium-Ion Batteries and Quinones
11.2.4 Introduction to the Nanolignin
11.2.5 Origin and Nature of Nanolignin
11.2.5.1 Origin of Nanolignin
11.2.5.2 Nature of Nanolignin
11.2.6 Chemical Structures of Nanolignin
11.2.7 Nanolignin-Based Smart Materials
11.2.8 Isolation's Techniques
11.2.8.1 Kraft Process
11.2.8.2 Sulfite process
11.3 Kraft Nanolignin-Carbon Composite for Sustainable Cathode Materials
11.3.1 Objective and Motivation
11.3.2 Electrochemistry of Kraft Nanolignin-Carbon Composites
11.4 Modification of Kraft Nanolignin with Dialdehyde Crosslinkers for Cathode Materials
11.5 Oxidation of Kraft Nanolignin for Cathode Materials
11.6 Other Advanced Carbon Materials from Nanolignin for Electrodes
11.6.1 Carbon Fibres
11.6.1.1 Spinning
11.6.1.2 Thermostabilization
11.6.1.3 Carbonization
11.6.1.4 Developments in Nanolignin-Derived Carbon Fibres
11.6.1.5 Microstructured Carbon Fibre Mats
11.6.1.6 Activated Carbons
11.6.1.7 Templated Carbons
11.6.1.8 Activated Carbon Fibres
11.6.1.9 Nanolignin Film
11.7 Composites from Nanolignin for Electrodes
11.7.1 Carbon/Nanolignin Composites
11.7.2 Nanolignin-Derived Carbon/Active Material Composites
11.7.3 Nanolignin/Active Materials and Nanolignin/Polymer Composites
11.8 Nanolignin-Based Materials without Carbonization as Binders and Separators
11.8.1 Nanolignin-Based Binder without Carbonization
11.8.2 Nanolignin-Based Separator without Carbonization
11.9 Conclusions
How the Contribution Fits into the Book
References
12. Nanocellulose-Based Facilitated Transport Membranes for Biogas Upgradation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanocellulose-Extraction Methods, Types, Functionalization, and Applications
12.3 Membrane Technology - Terms in Gas Separation
12.3.1 Robeson's Upper Bound
12.4 Facilitated Transport Mechanism (FTM): Concept, Types, and Applicability of NC in Utilizing the Mechanism for Biogas Upgradation
12.4.1 Carriers: Working Principle
12.4.1.1 Mobile Carrier Membranes
12.4.1.2 Supported Liquid Membrane (SLM)
12.4.1.3 Ion-Exchange Membranes (IEM)
12.4.1.4 Fixed-Site Carrier Membranes (FSC)
12.4.2 Applicability of NC in Biogas Upgradation
12.5 Factors Affecting Permeability and Selectivity
12.5.1 External Factors
12.5.1.1 Effect of Relative Humidity
12.5.1.2 Effect of Feed Pressure
12.5.1.3 Effect of Temperature
12.5.1.4 Effect of pH
12.5.2 Effect of Internal Parameters
12.5.2.1 Effect of Thickness
12.5.2.2 Effect of Mechanical Properties of Membrane
12.5.2.3 Crystallinity
12.6 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
13. Aerogels with Green Nanofillers for Flame-Retardant Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Classification of Aerogels
13.1.2 Characteristics of Aerogels
13.1.2.1 Porosity
13.1.2.2 Mechanical Strength
13.1.2.3 Thermal Conductivity
13.1.2.4 Flame Retardancy
13.2 Processing of Aerogels
13.2.1 Thermal Drying
13.2.2 Freeze Drying
13.2.3 Supercritical Drying (SCD)
13.2.4 Ambient Pressure Drying
13.2.5 Processing of NC Aerogels
13.3 Aerogel Functionalization
13.4 Flame Retardant Green Aerogels
13.5 Green Aerogels with Inorganic Nanofillers
13.5.1 NC/Inorganic NC-Based Aerogels
13.5.2 Chitin and Chitosan-Based Aerogels
13.5.3 Starch-Based Aerogels
13.5.4 Lignin-Based Aerogels
13.6 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Section III: Environment
14. Recent Trends in Nanochitosan-Based Materials for Environmental Remediation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nanochitosan
14.2.1 Ionotropic Gelation
14.2.2 Co-precipitation Method
14.3 Nanochitosan-Based Materials for Water Remediation
14.3.1 Heavy Metals
14.3.2 Organic Pollutants
14.3.3 Desalination
14.3.4 Antibacterial/Antifouling
14.3.5 Nanochitosan for Oil and Water Separation
14.4 Nanochitosan-Derived Materials for Soil Remediation
14.4.1 Inorganic (Heavy Metal) Contaminants
14.4.2 Organic Contaminants
14.4.3 Degradative Capacity of Contaminated Soils
14.4.4 Chitosan in Sensor Technology
14.5 Nanochitosan-Derived Materials for Air Remediation
14.5.1 Chitosan-Based Electrospun Nanofiber Filters
14.5.2 Chitosan-Based Hollow Fiber Membranes
14.5.3 Chitosan-Based Nanotubes for Air Filtration
14.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
15. Nanocellulose-Based Membranes for Water Purification
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Water Pollution
15.2.1 Direct Sources of Pollution
15.2.2 Indirect Sources of Pollution
15.3 Major Contaminants and Their Characteristics
15.3.1 Physical Contaminants
15.3.2 Chemical Contaminants
15.3.3 Biological Contaminants
15.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass
15.4.1 Cellulose
15.4.2 Hemicellulose
15.4.3 Lignin
15.5 Nanocellulose (NC): Introduction/Fundamentals and Extraction
15.5.1 Extraction
15.5.2 Pretreatment
15.5.3 Acid-Based Hydrolysis
15.5.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
15.5.5 Mechanical Fibrillation
15.6 NC Membranes
15.7 Preparation of NC Membrane
15.8 Characteristics of NC Membrane
15.8.1 Hydrophilicity
15.8.2 Porosity
15.8.3 High Surface Area
15.8.4 Modifiable Surface Characteristics
15.8.5 Electrostatic Interaction
15.8.6 Water Flux
15.8.7 Mechanical Strength
15.8.8 Reusability and Biodegradability
15.9 Water Filtration Mechanisms Using NC
15.9.1 Filtration by Size Exclusion
15.9.2 Filtration by Electrostatic Interaction
15.9.3 Filtration by the Hydrophilicity
15.10 Recent Developments in Water Filtration Using NC-Based Membranes
15.10.1 Removal of Heavy Metal Ions
15.10.2 Removal of Dyes
15.10.3 Removal of Microorganisms
15.10.4 Removal of Oil
15.11 Types of Membrane Separation Techniques Presently in Use
15.12 Conclusion
15.13 Future Scope
References
16. Nanocellulose- and Modified Wood-Based Sorbents for Oily Waste Cleanup
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Key Evaluators for Oil Sorbents
16.2.1 Apparent Density
16.2.2 Mechanical Properties
16.2.3 Porosity and Sorption Capacity
16.2.4 Sorption Selectivity
16.3 Production Process of Nanocellulose- or Modified Wood-Based Sorbents
16.3.1 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogel/Foam Sorbents
16.3.1.1 Crosslinking
16.3.1.1.1 Physical Crosslinking
16.3.1.1.2 Chemical Crosslinking
16.3.1.2 Hydrophobization
16.3.1.2.1 Physical Blending
16.3.1.2.2 Chemical Modification
16.3.1.2.3 Thermal Treatment
16.3.2 Modified Wood-Based Sorbents
16.4 Summary and Outlook
References
17. Carbon Nanomaterials as Renewable Water Purification Materials
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Carbon Nanotubes
17.2.1 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes from Renewable Sources
17.3 Activated Carbon
17.3.1 Synthesis of Activated Carbon
17.4 Carbon Dots
17.4.1 Synthesis of Carbon Dots
17.5 Graphene Oxide (GO)
17.5.1 Synthesis of Graphene Oxide
17.6 Fullerene
17.6.1 Synthesis of Fullerenes
17.7 MD Simulations for Water Treatment
17.8 Water Purification System with Renewable Source
17.9 Summary and Outlook
References
18. Potential Applications of Polysaccharide-Based Aerogels
18.1 Introduction to Aerogels
18.2 Polysaccharide-Based Aerogels: Precursors and Methods of Preparation
18.2.1 Precursors
18.2.2 Methods of Preparation
18.3 Applications of Polysaccharide-Based Aerogels
18.3.1 Biomedical Applications
18.3.1.1 As Biosensors
18.3.1.2 Tissue Engineering and Bone Regeneration
18.3.1.3 Wound Healing
18.3.1.4 Drug Delivery
18.3.2 Food Technology
18.3.2.1 Food and Food Supplements
18.3.2.2 Food Packaging
18.3.3 Electronics Industry
18.3.3.1 Supercapacitors
18.3.3.2 For Batteries
18.3.3.3 For Piezoelectric Devices
18.3.3.4 In High Voltage Insulators
18.3.4 In Chemical Engineering
18.3.4.1 For Catalysis
18.3.4.2 In Filtration and Separation
18.3.4.3 In Green Technology
18.3.5 In Construction Applications
18.3.5.1 As Solar Energy Materials
18.3.5.2 In Acoustic Devices
18.3.5.3 As Thermal Insulators
18.3.5.4 As Lightweight Materials
18.4 Summary and Outlook
References
19. Future Outlook and Challenges in the Applicability of Green Nanomaterials
19.1 Packaging
19.2 Energy Conversion/Conservation
19.3 Water Treatment/Purification Technology
19.4 Scope for Industrialization
References
Index