Nanomaterials and Neoplasms: Towards Clinical Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Detecting and Destroying Cancer Cells in More Than One Way with Noble Metals and Different Confinement Properties on the Nanoscale
1.1: Photon Confinement: Imaging Probes, Photothermal Therapy, and Spectroscopic
Detection
1.2: Molecular Confinement: Drug Delivery
1.3: Cellular Confinement: Intrinsic Pharmacodynamic Properties of Nanoparticles
1.4: Subcellular Confinement: Selectively Localizing Nanoparticles at Cancer Cell Nuclei
1.5: Conclusions
1.6: Challenges and Outlook
Chapter 2: Engineered Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy
2.1: Introduction
2.2: Working with Different Types of Anticancer Drugs
2.2.1: Hydrophobic Drugs
2.2.2: Hydrophilic Drugs
2.2.3: Highly Charged Drugs
2.3: Methods for Controlled Release
2.3.1: Sustained Release
2.3.2: Diffusion-Controlled Release
2.3.3: Erosion-Controlled Release
2.3.4: Stimuli-Responsive Release
2.3.5: pH-Sensitive Release
2.3.6: Enzyme-Sensitive Release
2.3.7: Thermoresponsive Release
2.3.8: Photosensitive Release
2.4: In vitro and in vivo Delivery
2.4.1: In vitro Delivery
2.4.1.1: Endocytosis
2.4.1.2: Intracellular transport
2.4.1.3: Intracellular escape and degradation of nanoparticles
2.4.1.4: Multidrug resistance
2.4.2: In vivo Delivery
2.4.2.1: The EPR effect and passive tumor targeting
2.4.2.2: Active tumor targeting
2.4.2.3: Clearance by the MPS
2.4.2.4: Renal clearance
2.4.2.5: Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution
2.4.2.6: Biocompatibility and biodegradation
2.5: Perspectives on the Design of Nanoparticle Carriers
2.5.1: Natural versus Synthetic Materials
2.5.2: Size and Shape
2.5.3: Surface Properties
2.5.3.1: Surface charges
2.5.3.2: PEGylation
2.5.3.3: Polysaccharides
2.5.3.4: Conjugation with targeting ligands
2.5.4: Drug Loading
2.6: Case Studies
2.6.1: Protein–Drug Conjugates
2.6.2: Liposomes
2.6.3: Polymer Nanoparticles
2.6.4: Polymer–Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles
2.6.5: Dendrimers
2.6.6: Hydrogels
2.6.7: Phase-Change Materials
2.6.8: Inorganic Nanoparticles
2.7: Summary and Outlook
Chapter 3: Recent Progress in Cancer Thermal Therapy Using Gold Nanoparticles
3.1: Introduction to Gold Nanoparticles
3.2: Photothermal Therapy Using Gold Nanoparticles
3.3: Radiofrequency Hyperthermia with Gold Nanoparticles
3.4: Physical Investigations into Photothermal Heating with Gold Nanoparticles
3.5: Mechanisms of in vitro Cell Death due to Photothermal Treatment
3.6: Recent Nanoparticle Designs for in vitro Photothermal Treatment
3.7: Recent Nanoparticle Designs for in vivo Photothermal Treatment
3.8: In vivo Biodistribution of Gold Nanoparticles for Photothermal Therapy
3.9: Progression of Photothermal Therapy to Clinical Use
3.10: Conclusions and Perspectives
Chapter 4: Gold Nanomaterials at Work in Biomedicine
4.1: Introduction
4.1.1: Gold Nanomaterials and Their Optical Properties
4.1.2: Other Properties of Gold Essential to Biomedical Applications
4.1.3: Gold Nanomaterials at Work in Biomedicine
4.2: Chemical Synthesis of Gold Nanomaterials
4.2.1: Gold Clusters
4.2.2: Conventional Gold Nanoparticles
4.2.3: Gold Nanospheres
4.2.4: Gold Nanorods
4.2.5: Gold Nanoplates
4.2.6: Gold Nanoshells
4.2.7: Gold Nanoboxes, Nanocages, and Nanoframes
4.2.8: Other Types of Gold Nanostructures
4.2.8.1: Polyhedral nanocrystals
4.2.8.2: Nanostructures with branched arms
4.2.9: Postsynthesis Surface Modification
4.3: Optical Properties of Gold Nanomaterials
4.3.1: Photoluminescence
4.3.2: Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance
4.3.2.1: The basics
4.3.2.2: Mie theory
4.3.2.3: Tuning resonance peaks into the near-infrared
region
4.3.2.4: Measuring the optical cross sections
4.3.3: Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering
4.4: Biomedical Applications of Gold Nanomaterials
4.4.1: Optical Sensing
4.4.1.1: Sensing based on the photoluminescence of gold
clusters
4.4.1.2: Sensing based on localized surface plasmon resonance
4.4.1.3: Sensing based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering
4.4.1.4: Sensing based on photoluminescence
quenching
4.4.2: Optical Imaging
4.4.2.1: Imaging based on photoluminescence
4.4.2.2: Imaging based on elastic light scattering
4.4.2.3: Imaging based on inelastic light scattering
4.4.2.4: Imaging based on photothermal conversion
4.4.3: Other Imaging Modalities
4.4.3.1: X-ray CT imaging
4.4.3.2: PET imaging
4.4.3.3: Cerenkov luminescence imaging
4.4.4: Drug Delivery
4.4.4.1: Drug loading
4.4.4.2: Controlled release
4.4.4.3: Multidrug resistance
4.4.5: Cancer Therapy
4.4.5.1: Photothermal therapy
4.4.5.2: Photodynamic therapy
4.4.5.3: X-ray radiotherapy
4.4.5.4: Combined therapy
4.5: Pharmacokinetics, Biodistribution, Tumor Targeting, and Issues
4.5.1: In vitro versus in vivo Applications
4.5.2: Pharmacokinetics
4.5.3: Biodistribution and Tumor Targeting
4.5.4: Toxicity and Clearance Issues
4.5.4.1: Long-term toxicity
4.5.4.2: Clearance from the body
4.6: Concluding Remarks
Chapter 5: The Nanomedicines Alliance: An Industry Perspective on Nanomedicines
5.1: Introduction
Chapter 6: Nanomedicine(s) under the Microscope
6.1: Introduction
6.2: Terminology and Historical Background
6.2.1: The Field of Nanomedicine
6.2.2: Nanomedicines and Theranostics
6.3: The Present: Nanomedicines Today
6.3.1: The Genealogy
6.3.2: Products in the Market and Clinical Trial
6.3.3: New Drugs or Improved Drug Delivery?
6.3.4: General Considerations for Translation
6.3.4.1: Potency and payload
6.3.4.2: Safety
6.3.4.3: Metabolic fate
6.3.4.4: Pharmacokinetics
6.3.4.5: Whole-body pharmacokinetics and
biodistribution
6.3.4.6: Cellular pharmacokinetics
6.3.4.7: Stability/drug release rates
6.3.4.8: Pharmacological evaluation and preclinical
development
6.4: Tumor Targeting: A Case Analysis
6.4.1: Passive Targeting
6.4.2: Receptor-Mediated Targeting
6.4.3: Preclinical Anticancer Models and Translational Challenges
6.4.4: Nanomedicine Biomarkers
6.5: The Future: Nanomedicines of Tomorrow?
6.5.1: Emerging Materials
6.5.1.1: Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and nanohorns
6.5.1.2: Inorganic nanosized particles
6.5.1.3: Gold
6.5.1.4: Silver
6.5.1.5: Iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONS)
6.5.1.6: Silicon-based nanoparticles
6.5.1.7: Quantum dots
6.5.1.8: Polymer conjugates, micelles, and polymeric
nanoparticles
6.5.1.9: Dendrimers
6.5.1.10: Polymeric nanoparticles
6.5.1.11: Liposomes and lipidic and albumin nanoparticles
6.5.1.12: Multicomponent systems, imaging agents, and
theranostics
6.5.2: Biological Rationale for Design: What’s New?
6.5.3: Defining Structure–Activity Relationships: Improved Tools?
6.6: Translating Nanomedicines to Practice
6.6.1: New Nanomedicine Regulation?
6.6.2: Embracing Modern Tools for Development
6.6.3: The Art of Communication
6.7: Conclusions
Chapter 7: Imaging Nano–Bio Interactions in the Kidney: Toward a Better Understanding of Nanoparticle Clearance
Chapter 8: Nanomaterials for Theranostics: Recent Advances and Future Challenges
8.1: Introduction
8.1.1: What Are the Key Biological Processes Pertinent to Diseases,
and How Can These Processes Be
Monitored?
8.1.2: What Is the Core Advantage of in vivo Imaging over in vitro Assays?
8.1.3: What Are the Key Challenges That Need to Be Addressed to Overcome
the Fundamental Limitations of in
vivo Imaging?
8.2: Major Cancer Signaling Pathways and the Concept of Targeted Delivery
8.3: Design of Theranostic Nanoparticles
8.3.1: Biomedical Payloads
8.3.1.1: Imaging
8.3.1.2: Therapeutics
8.3.2: Carrier
8.3.2.1: Polymers
8.3.2.2: Lipids
8.3.2.3: Dendrimers
8.3.2.4: Inorganic nanocarriers
8.3.3: Surface Modifiers
8.4: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties of Nanomaterial-Based Therapy
8.5: Theranostic Nanomaterials
8.5.1: Magnetic Nanoparticles
8.5.1.1: Magnetic nanoparticles as imaging agents
8.5.1.2: Magnetic nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles
8.5.1.3: Magnetic nanoparticles as hyperthermal agents
8.5.1.4: Magnetic nanoparticles as anticancer drugs
8.5.2: Quantum Dots (QDs)
8.5.2.1: Strategies for reduced RES uptake
8.5.2.2: Anticancer drug and other chemical drug delivery
8.5.2.3: Gene delivery
8.5.3: Metal Nanoparticles
8.5.3.1: Metal nanoparticle as imaging agent
8.5.3.2: Metal nanoparticle as photothermal agent
8.5.3.3: Drug release triggered by metal nanoparticle-based
hyperthermia
8.5.4: Upconversion Nanoparticles (UCNPs)
8.5.4.1: Imaging agent
8.5.4.2: Photosensitizer activator
8.5.5: Silica and Other Inorganic Nanomaterials
8.5.5.1: Silica
8.5.5.2: Calcium phosphate
8.5.5.3: Apatite
8.5.5.4: Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)
8.5.6: Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
8.5.6.1: Carbon nanomaterials as carrier
8.5.6.2: Carbon materials for photothermal therapy
8.6: Summary and Outlook
Chapter 9: Metabolism of Nanomaterials in vivo: Blood Circulation and Organ Clearance
9.1: Introduction
9.2: Blood Circulation
9.2.1: Effects of the Physioanatomical Features of Vasculature
9.2.2: Effects of the Physicochemical Characteristics of NMs
9.2.3: Effects of the Interactions between NMs and the Biomicroenvironment
9.3: Organ Clearance of Nanomaterials
9.3.1: Pulmonary Clearance of Nanomaterials
9.3.2: Hepatic Clearance of Nanomaterials
9.3.3: Renal Clearance of Nanomaterials
9.4: Conclusion and Outlook
Index