Nanocarbons: Preparation, Assessments, and Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations and Symbols Used
Chapter 1 Introduction and Survey
1.1 Status of Carbon
1.1.1 Incredible Nanocarbons
1.1.1.1 Dimensionality Effect: Buckminsterfullerenes to Nanotubes
1.1.1.2 2D Graphene and Beyond
1.1.2 Special Properties of Nanocarbons: A Brief Overview
1.1.2.1 Electrical Conductivity
1.1.2.2 Optical Activity
1.1.2.3 Mechanical Strength
1.1.2.4 Chemical Reactivity
1.1.2.5 Functionalization
1.1.2.6 Doping, Decoration, and Ad-Atom
1.2 Scope of Nanocarbons
References
Chapter 2 Preparation and Evaluation of Nanocarbons
2.1 0D Carbon Systems: Carbon Nanoparticles (CNP)/Nano-spheres (CNS)
2.1.1 Templated Growth Using DC-PECVD
2.1.1.1 Template Preparation
2.1.1.2 Separation of the Over-Layer MWCNTs from the Porous Templates
2.1.1.3 Morphological Studies on the Porous Subsurface Region and CNPs
2.1.2 Sublimation Synthesis
2.1.2.1 Single-Step Preparation of CNS
2.1.2.2 Analysis of CNS
2.1.3 Carbon Black Composite
2.2 Carbon Nanotubes: 1D Format of Carbon
2.2.1 DC-PECVD Synthesis
2.2.1.1 Role of Barrier/Buffer Layer: Catalytic CVD
2.2.1.2 Deposition of Multiple Barrier Layers
2.2.2 Thermal CVD Growth
2.2.2.1 D-SIMS Analysis
2.2.3 Super-Growth of CNTs
2.2.3.1 Rapid Thermal CVD
2.2.3.2 Templated CVD
2.2.3.3 CNT Patterning
2.2.3.4 Selective Deposition
2.3 2D Graphene
2.3.1 Expanded Graphite
2.3.2 Disordered Graphene Like Nano-Carbons (GNCs)
2.3.3 Graphene Nano-Ribbon
2.3.4 Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO)
2.3.5 CVD Graphene
2.4 Foundry-Processed 3D Graphite: Variable Density Effect
2.5 4D Orthogonal Carbon Fabric
References
Chapter 3 Hydrodynamics and Shock Absorption Properties of Nanocarbons
3.1 Explosion: Background
3.1.1 Origin: The Introduction
3.1.2 Occurrence: An Acoustic-Mechanical Analogue
3.1.3 Shock Characteristics
3.2 Laboratory Synthesis: The Survey
3.2.1 Blast Mitigation Studies
3.2.2 Blast-Mitigating Materials and Shield
3.3 Experimental Simulation of Blast: The Instrumentation
3.3.1 Contact Explosion
3.3.2 Standoff Explosion Technique
3.3.3 Shock Wave Tube
3.3.4 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (sHPB)
3.4 GNF for Shock-Absorbing Applications
3.4.1 Dynamic Deformation at Nanoscale Level: Methodology
3.4.1.1 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (sHPB): HSR Measurement Details
3.4.1.2 Hydrodynamic Parameters: The Lagrange–Rankine–Hugoniot Approach
3.4.1.3 Fractography Analysis: Electron Microscopy Imaging
3.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy: Statistical Model
3.4.2.1 Shock Wave–GNF Interactions: Slip Mechanism and Peierls–Nabarro Stresses
3.5 Surface Interactions of Transonic Shock Wave with GLNR
3.5.1 Mechanical Behaviour
3.5.1.1 Fractographic Analysis
3.5.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy
3.5.1.3 Signal Processing Studies: Pressure Impulse Interaction with GLNR
3.6 Hydrodynamics Response of Nanocarbons: CNS vs GNF
3.6.1 Stress (σ)–Strain (ε) Behaviour
3.6.1.1 Equation of State
3.6.1.2 Hydrodynamic State Variables: The Interplay
3.6.1.3 Shock Contour: Realistic vs Theoretical
3.6.2 Shock Imprinting
3.7 Blast Mitigation Parameters for PNCs
3.7.1 Constitutive Analysis
3.7.1.1 Shock Hugoniot: P–V, U[sub(S)]–U[sub(P)], and P–U[sub(S)] Variations
3.7.1.2 Shock and Particle Velocity Considerations
3.7.1.3 Loading–Unloading Characteristics
3.7.1.4 Electron and Force Microscopy Studies
3.7.2 Strain–Impulse Investigations: Shear, Compression, and Hardening
3.7.3 Shock Anatomy
References
Chapter 4 Microwave Scattering and Radar Absorption Coating Properties of Nanocarbons
4.1 Radar Know-Hows: The Background
4.1.1 Detection and Range Finding: The Communication Bands
4.1.2 S-Parameter Measurements: Vector Network Analysis
4.1.3 Sample Preparation for S-Parameter and Reflection Loss Studies: Coaxial and Slab-Shaped Specimen
4.1.3.1 Coaxial Measurements
4.1.3.2 Dallenbach Scattering: Reflection/Return Loss Measurements
4.2 Microwave Scattering Mechanism: The Maxwellian Formulation
4.2.1 Maxwell's Formulation: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
4.2.2 Microwave Interactions with Material: Losses, Absorption Factors, and Conditions
4.2.2.1 Losses
4.2.2.2 Factors Affecting Microwave Absorption
4.2.2.3 Conditions for Absorption
4.2.3 S-Parameters by Transmission Line Approach: Nicolson–Ross Algorithm
4.2.4 Coating Characteristics: The Survey
4.3 Shielding Performance of Materials Architected
4.3.1 Microwave Absorption Properties of Ni-Zn Ferrite Nanoparticle Nanocomposites
4.3.1.1 Morphological Properties
4.3.1.2 Microwave Characteristics
4.3.2 Impressive Transmission Mode EMI Shield Parameters of GNC/PU Nanocomposites for Short-Range Tracking Countermeasures
4.3.2.1 Vibration Spectroscopic Analysis: FTIR and Raman Spectroscopy
4.3.2.2 DC Conductivity
4.3.2.3 Analysis of Scattering Parameters: Real and Imaginary Permittivity
4.3.2.4 Efficient Microwave Absorbing Properties
4.3.3 Ferrite/Nanocarbon Composites
4.3.3.1 γ-and Ni-Zn Ferrite Thermoplastic Polyurethane
4.3.3.2 Stealth Properties of MWCNTs/Ferrite/PU Composites
4.4 Graphene and Graphene Derivatives for Shielding
4.4.1 Performance of Multicomponent rGOSFPVDF Composite
4.4.1.1 Preparation of Coating Material
4.4.1.2 Morphological and Chemical Studies
4.4.1.3 Shielding Character
4.4.1.4 Heterostructure of SrAl[sub(4)]Fe[sub(8)]O[sub(19)]/rGO/PVDF Composites
4.4.2 Molecular Composites for EMI Paints
4.4.2.1 Nickel/Nanocarbon Composites
4.4.2.2 Carbon Black/Molybdenum Disulphide/Cobalt Composite
4.4.2.3 Ferro-Nanocarbon Composites
References
Chapter 5 Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics in Micrographitic Nozzles
5.1 Thermo-Physical Assessments of Variable Density Graphite
5.1.1 Graphitic Carbon in Missile Engineering
5.1.1.1 Nozzles: System Engineering in Short-Range Missiles
5.1.1.2 Density Effects on Thermodynamics of Nozzles
5.1.2 Thermal Measurements
5.1.2.1 Transient Flash Technique: Measurement of C[sub(P)], λ, and α
5.1.2.2 Push-Rod Dilatometry: Measurement of α[sub(L)]
5.1.2.3 Other Characterization Techniques
5.1.3 Heat Capacity, C[sub(P)], at Constant Pressure and Volume
5.1.4 Thermal Conductivity, Diffusivity, and Heat Flux
5.1.5 Thermal Expansivity Effects
5.1.6 XRD: The Structure Change
5.1.7 Raman: The Molecular-Level Thermal Trace
5.1.8 Microscopic Analysis
5.2 High-Temperature Thermodynamics in Rocket Motor Nozzles
5.2.1 General Thermodynamic Considerations
5.2.1.1 Static Firing Test of Nozzles
5.2.1.2 Measurement Details
5.2.2 Comparison of Thermal Properties Before and After Firing
5.2.2.1 Estimation of Change in Entropy
5.2.2.2 Enthalpy Calculations
5.2.3 Comparison of Physical Parameters
References
Chapter 6 Electrochemistry and Energy Storage Devices Made Up of Carbon Nanoparticles
6.1 High-Performance Tellurium–Reduced Graphene Oxide Pseudo-Capacitor
6.1.1 Demand and Thrust for Energy: The Global Scenario
6.1.2 Basic Formulation for the Estimation of Electrochemical Parameters
6.1.3 Preparation of Te-Based Electrodes and Electrochemical Measurements
6.1.3.1 Structure and Property Relationship
6.1.3.2 Electrochemical Analysis
6.1.3.3 Fully Sealed Device Characteristics
6.2 Fabrication of Flexible and Durable Supercell Made Up of Carbon Nano-Spheres
6.2.1 Background Information
6.2.1.1 Pre-Analysis of CNS
6.2.1.2 Electrochemical Performance Parameters for CNS Electrodes
6.2.2 Post-Material Analysis, Cell Fabrication, and Performance Evaluation
6.2.2.1 CNS: Post-Analysis
6.2.2.2 Flat-Cell Characteristics
6.2.2.3 Flexible CNS Electrodes: Supercell Device
6.3 Self-Assembled Two-Dimensional Heterostructure of rGO/MoS[sub(2)]/h-BN (GMH)
6.3.1 2D Heterojunction: The Survey
6.3.1.1 rGO/MoS[sub(2)]/h-BN (GMH Composite) Heterojunction: Fabrication and Analysis
6.3.1.2 Surface Chemical and Morphological Investigations
6.3.1.3 Electrochemical Studies
6.3.1.4 GMH Cell: Performance
References
Chapter 7 Magnetism in Otherwise Non-Magnetic Nanocarbons and Their Derivatives
7.1 Spin Transport and Magnetic Correlation in GNCs Doped with Nitrogen
7.1.1 Non-Magnetic Carbon: The Survey
7.1.1.1 Methods for Nitrogen Doping in GNCs
7.1.2 Magneto-Spin Investigations
7.1.2.1 ESR
7.1.2.2 Magnetometry
7.1.3 Electronic Transport Properties
7.1.4 Magnetic Correlations: GNCs vs N-GNCs
7.1.4.1 Spin Transport
7.1.4.2 Magnetometry Studies
7.1.5 Electron Spectroscopic Chemical Studies
7.1.5.1 Reduced Exchange Correlations in Nitrogenated GNCs
7.1.5.2 RKKY Interactions
7.2 Spin Dynamics in GNCs vs Graphene: Role of Adatoms
7.2.1 Spin Transport in Carbon: The Background
7.2.1.1 Temperature-Dependent Electron Spin Resonance
7.2.1.2 Anisotropy in Effective g-Factor
7.2.1.3 Spin–Spin (T[sub(ss)]) and Spin–Lattice (T[sub(sl)]) Relaxation
7.2.1.4 Estimation of Spin (Γ[sub(spin)]) and Momentum Relaxation Rates (Γ)
7.2.1.5 Estimation of SPIN Susceptibility (χ[sub(spin)]), and Concentration (S[sub(c)])
7.2.2 N-GNCs Qubit
7.3 Molecular and Spin Interactions of Tellurium Adatoms in Reduced Graphene Oxide
7.4 Molecular Spintronics in 2D Carbon with Adatoms
7.4.1 Chemical State Analysis of Te in rGO Using Electron Spectroscopy
7.4.2 Bond Molecular Environment of Te in rGO: Raman Studies
7.4.2.1 Structure of rGO and Te–rGO: Molecular Parameters
7.4.2.2 Electrolytic Conductance of rGO and Te–rGO
7.4.2.3 Spin Dynamics: rGO vs Te–rGO
7.5 Tetrakis(Dimethylamino)Ethylene-Induced Magnetism
7.5.1 Nitrogenated Nanocarbons: The Intriguing Systems
7.5.1.1 Thermo-Magnetic Behaviour
7.5.1.2 DFT Calculations
References
Chapter 8 Multi-Functional Nano-Carbons: From Meta-Materials to Non-Liner Optics and Gas Sensing to Mechanically Tough Fibre Mat Application
8.1 Multifunctional Aspects
8.1.1 Optical Gas Sensing
8.1.1.1 Optical Band Structure: The Sensor Characteristics
8.1.2 Measurements of Sensing Parameters: NH[sub(3)] Gas a Case Study
8.1.2.1 Sensor Transfer Function
8.1.2.2 Sensing Mechanism
8.1.2.3 Molecular Imprint of NH[sub(3)]
8.1.3 EMI Shielding: The Added Feature
8.1.3.1 Coating Characteristics
8.1.3.2 DC Conductivity (σ[sub(dc)])
8.1.3.3 % Reflection Loss
8.1.4 Shielding Mechanism
8.2 Split-ring Resonators: Ferro-Nanocarbon Metamaterials
8.2.1 Origin of Left-Handed Material Systems: The Veselago Medium
8.2.2 Ferro-Nanocarbon as LHM: Preparation and Assessments
8.2.2.1 Dielectric Measurements
8.2.2.2 VSM Studies
8.2.2.3 Fabrication of Ferro-Nanocarbon Split-Ring Resonators (FNC-SRRs)
8.2.2.4 Computational Electromagnetics
8.2.2.5 Microwave Measurements on FNC-SRRs
8.2.3 Molecular Characteristics of FNC-SRRs
8.2.3.1 Dielectric Relaxation and Anisotropy
8.2.3.2 Magneto-Molecular Assessments
8.2.4 Modelling and Simulation: Computational Electromagnetics
8.2.4.1 Scalar S-Matrix Parameter and Constitutive Analysis
8.2.4.2 Nicolson–Ross–Weir Formulism
8.2.4.3 Retrieval Methodology
8.2.5 Cellular Architecture and Bi-Anisotropy
8.3 Mechanical Properties of GNC Nanocomposites
8.3.1 Dispersion of GNCs in Epoxy Matrix
8.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Nanocomposites
8.3.2.1 Tensile Properties
8.3.2.2 Flexural Properties
8.3.2.3 Fracture Toughness
8.4 Mechanical Properties of Electrospun PVA/CNT Composite Nanofibres
8.4.1 Fibre Electrospinning
8.4.2 Mechanical Properties
References
Chapter 9 Application Engineering of Nanocarbon-Reinforced Composites
9.1 Field Electron Emission Aspects of CNTs: The Paste Approach
9.1.1 Fowler–Nordheim Theory: Basic Formulation of Field Enhancement Factor (γ)
9.1.1.1 Array FE Configuration of CNT Paste
9.1.1.2 Screen-Printed Triode-CNT FE Arrays for Flat Lamps
9.1.1.3 Enhanced FE Properties of CNTs: Role of SiO[sub(x)] Coating
9.1.1.4 FE Properties of Plasma-Treated CNT Cathode Layers
9.1.1.5 CNT Composite: Dispersion Routes and FE Parameters
9.2 TiO[sub(2)]-Coated CNTs: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
9.2.1 Preparation and Production
9.2.2 Morphology and Solar Cell Performance
9.3 CNT-Embedded Nylon Nanofibre Bundles by Electrospinning
References
Chapter 10 Poly-Nanocarbons: Ion-Track Membranes for Devices and Nuclear Radiation-Induced Modifications for Opto-Electronics
10.1 Emergence of Nano-Ion-Track Membrane for Flat Flexible Devices
10.1.1 Ion-Tracks: The Brief History
10.1.1.1 Latent Tracks: The Mechanism of Formation
10.1.1.2 Track Manipulations: The Chemical Etching Process
10.1.2 Estimation of Etched Track Diameter: Ion Transmission Spectroscopy (ITS) Technique
10.1.3 Design and Development of Flat, Flexible Prototype Devices: The Micro-Transformer
10.1.3.1 Track Formation and Opening: The ITS Analysis
10.1.3.2 Track Deposition
10.1.3.3 Electrode-Less Deposition
10.1.3.4 Mask Lithography and Development of Micro-Transformer
10.1.3.5 Device Characteristics and Quality Assessments
10.1.3.6 Implementation to Nanostructured Devices: Micro-Transformer
10.2 Opto-Electronic Properties of Radiation-Induced Modified Polycarbons
10.2.1 Radiation-Induced Modifications: The Background
10.2.1.1 Interaction with Ions
10.2.1.2 Electrons
10.2.1.3 Gamma Rays
10.2.2 Theory of Radiation-Enhanced/Radiation-Assisted Diffusion
10.2.3 Theory of Dielectric Function: Tailoring Optoelectronic Properties
10.2.3.1 Molar Polarizability, α
10.2.3.2 Density Effects (Free Volume Considerations)
10.2.3.3 Importance of Elemental Incorporation
10.2.4 Methodology for Radiation-Assisted/Radiation-Enhanced Diffusion: The Irradiation Conditions
10.2.5 Opto-Electronic Property Investigations
10.2.5.1 Silver Diffusion Using 6-MeV Pulsed Electron Beam
10.2.5.2 Boron and Fluorine Diffused Polyimide Using Co-60 Gamma Radiations
10.2.6 Free Volume Investigations in Irradiated Polyimide: Positron Annihilation
10.2.6.1 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy Technique: The Basics
References
Chapter 11 Summary and Outlook
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Index