Microplastics in Urban Water Management

Microplastics in Urban Water Management
Contents
Notes of Contributors
Preface
1 Techniques for Microplastics Detection in Urban Water Systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sample Collection and Separation
1.2.1 Freshwater Samples
1.2.2 Freshwater Sediments
1.2.3 Wastewater Samples
1.2.4 Sludge Samples
1.2.5 Drinking Water Samples
1.3 Sample Purification
1.3.1 Wet Peroxidation
1.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation
1.3.3 Alkaline and Acid Treatment
1.3.4 Influence of Chemical Purification on Microplastic Property
1.4 Sample Identification
1.4.1 Visual Identification
1.4.2 Microscopic Identification
1.4.3 Spectroscopic Identification
1.4.4 Thermal Analysis
1.5 Quantitative Analysis
1.5.1 LD Method
1.5.2 DLS Method
1.5.3 NTA Method
1.5.4 Challenges in Particle Size Analysis
1.6 Quality Control
1.6.1 Internal Deviation
1.6.2 Judgment Error
1.7 Summary and Future Outlooks
References
2 Occurrence and Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 What Are Microplastics?
2.2.1 Primary and Secondary Microplastics
2.3 The Emergence of Microplastic
2.3.1 Sources
2.3.2 Transformation
2.4 Occurrence of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems
2.4.1 Abundance
2.4.2 Distribution
2.4.2.1 Size Distribution
2.4.2.2 Morphological Distribution
2.4.3 Composition
2.5 Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems
2.5.1 Water Treatment Plant
2.5.1.1 Removal of Microplastics by the Overall Process of Water Treatment
2.5.1.2 Removal Rate of Microplastics Depending on the Size
2.5.1.3 Removal Rate Depending on the Type of Microplastics
2.5.1.4 Removal Efficiency Depending on the Composition of Microplastics
2.5.1.5 Removal of Microplastics by Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation
2.5.1.6 Removal of Microplastics by Filtration
2.5.1.7 Removal of Microplastics by Ozonation
2.5.2 Microplastic Removal in Lab-scale Studies
2.6 Summary and Prospects
References
3 Occurrence of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Abundance and Removal Performance of Microplastics in WWTPs
3.3 The Microplastics Composition in WWTPs
3.3.1 Microplastics Size Distribution
3.3.2 Microplastic Shapes
3.3.3 Microplastic Materials
3.3.4 Microplastic Color
3.4 Removal of Microplastics in WWTPs and Contribution of Each Process
3.4.1 Primary Treatment
3.4.2 Secondary Treatment
3.4.3 Tertiary Treatment
3.5 Summary and Future Outlooks
References
4 Effects of Microplastics on Wastewater Treatment Processes
4.1 Biological Treatment Processes
4.1.1 Conventional Unit Operations and Processes
4.1.1.1 Suspended-Growth Processes
4.1.1.2 Attached-Growth Processes
4.1.1.3 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes
4.2 Interactions Between Sludge and Microplastics
4.2.1 Activated Sludge
4.2.2 Aerobic Granular Sludge
4.2.3 Anaerobic Granular Sludge
4.3 Effects of Microplastics on Microorganisms and Key Enzymes
4.3.1 Heterotrophic Bacteria
4.3.2 Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria
4.3.3 Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria
4.3.4 Key Enzymes
4.4 Effects on Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering
4.4.1 Aerobic Digestion
4.4.2 Dewatering
4.5 Perspectives
4.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Microplastics in Sewage Sludge of Wastewater Treatment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Occurrence
5.2.1 Primary Sludge
5.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge
5.2.3 Dewatered Sludge
5.3 Effects of Microplastics on Sludge Anaerobic Treatment
5.3.1 Methane
5.3.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acid
5.3.3 Hydrogen
5.3.4 Enzyme Activity
5.3.5 Microbial Community
5.4 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil and Landfills
5.4.1 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil
5.4.2 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Landfills
5.5 Enhanced Removal of Microplastics from Sludge
5.5.1 Thickening and Dehydration
5.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion
5.5.3 High Temperature Composting
5.5.4 Incineration
5.6 Summary and Outlook
References
6 Discharge of Microplastics from Wastewater Treatment Plants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Microplastics Concentrations in Effluent of WWTPs
6.2.1 Concentration of Microplastics in Effluent
6.2.2 Types of Microplastics in Effluent
6.3 Important Source of the Receiving Waters
6.3.1 River
6.3.2 Lake
6.3.3 Sea
6.3.3.1 Microplastics on Beaches and Coastal Areas
6.3.3.2 Microplastics on the Surface of Ocean Water
6.3.3.3 Microplastic Pollution in Polar Regions
6.3.4 Sediments
6.4 Uptake of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms
6.4.1 Freshwater Organisms
6.4.2 Marine Life
6.4.3 Soil and Crops
6.5 Conclusions and Considerations for Future Work
6.5.1 Conclusions
6.5.2 Considerations for Future Work
Acknowledgments
References
7 Microplastics Removal and Degradation in Urban Water Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Use of Separation-based Technology for the Removal of MPs
7.2.1 CFS
7.2.2 Electrocoagulation
7.2.3 Filtration
7.2.4 Membrane Separation
7.2.5 Adsorption
7.3 Photocatalysis Degradation of Microplastics
7.3.1 Zinc Oxide-based Photocatalysis
7.3.2 Titanium Dioxide-based Photocatalysis
7.3.3 Bismuth-based Photocatalysis
7.4 Chemical Oxidation Degradation of Microplastics
7.5 Future Prospects
References
8 Microplastics Contamination in Receiving Water Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources
8.2.1 River Surface Waters
8.2.2 Lake Surface Waters
8.3 Composition of Microplastics in Freshwater
8.4 Factors Influencing the Aging of Microplastics
8.5 Uptake and Associated Ecological Impacts of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms
8.5.1 Invertebrates
8.5.2 Waterbirds
8.5.3 Mammals and Megafauna
8.6 Interactions among Microplastics and Microbes (Bacteria)
8.6.1 Microplastic Biofilms: Formation Mechanisms and Characteristics
8.6.2 Factors Affecting Biofilm Formation
8.6.3 Role of Microplastic Biofilms in Genetic Material Transfer
8.6.4 Microplastics as Pathogen Carriers
8.7 Potential Interactions between Microplastics and Humans
8.7.1 Dietary Exposure
8.7.2 Exposure through Inhalation and Dermal Contact
8.7.3 Microplastics’ Toxicity in Humans
8.8 Implications and Suggestions
Acknowledgments
References
9 Effects of Microplastics on Algae in Receiving Waters
9.1 Introduction
9.2 MPs Induced Effect on the Algae: Growth and Populations
9.2.1 Effects of MPs on Algae Growth
9.2.2 Effects of MPs on Algae Populations
9.3 Factors Affecting Toxicity
9.3.1 Dosage
9.3.2 Size
9.3.3 Materials
9.4 Combined Effects of MPs with Contaminants towards Algae
9.4.1 Antibiotics
9.4.2 Heavy Metals
9.4.3 Other Emerging Contaminations
9.5 Research Gap and Perspective
References
10 Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms in Receiving Waters
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Occurrences in Water and Sediment
10.1.2 The Concerns about Potential Ecological Risks
10.2 Into the Food Chain of Aquatic Animals
10.2.1 Accumulation
10.2.2 Transfer within the Organizations
10.3 Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms
10.3.1 Decomposers
10.3.2 Producers
10.3.3 Consumers
10.4 The Sources of Toxicity
10.4.1 The Release of Plasticizers and Other Additives
10.4.2 The Adsorbed Pollutants
10.4.3 Physical Damage
10.5 Summary and Outlook
References
11 Chemicals Associated with Microplastics in Urban Waters
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Chemicals in Microplastics and Its Fragments
11.1.2 Chemical Additives in Plastic Consumer Products
11.2 The Release of Chemicals from Microplastics and Environmental Levels
11.2.1 Phthalic Acid Esters (PAEs)
11.2.2 Bisphenol A
References
12 Interactions between Microplastics and Contaminants in Urban Waters
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sorption of Contaminants on Microplastics
12.2.1 Antibiotics
12.2.2 Heavy Metals
12.2.3 Organic Pollutants
12.3 Enrichment of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes
12.3.1 Single Selection
12.3.2 Co-Selection
12.4 The Effects of Environmental Conditions
12.4.1 pH
12.4.2 Temperature
12.4.3 Salinity
12.4.4 Weathering/Aging Effect
12.5 Joint Potential Risks
12.5.1 For Contaminants Distribution in Aquatic Environment
12.5.2 For ARGs and ARB Distribution in Aquatic Environment
12.5.3 For Aquatic Organisms
12.5.4 For Human Health
12.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
13 Nanoplastics in Urban Waters: Recent Advances in the Knowledge Base
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment
13.2.1 Nanoplastics or Polymeric Nanoparticles
13.2.2 Formation Pathways of Nanoplastics
13.2.3 Source of Nanoplastics
13.2.4 The Behavior and Environmental Fate of Nanoplastics
13.2.5 Interaction of Nanoplastics with Contaminants
13.3 Interactions between Nanoplastics and Aquatic Organisms
13.3.1 Effects on Aquatic Organisms: From Microalgae to Fish
13.4 Ingestion of Nanoplastics in Aquatic Organisms
13.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Recommendation
Funding
Acknowledgements
Competing Interests
References
Index
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