Microplastics: Analytical Challenges and Environmental Impacts

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Contributors
Editor
Chapter 1 Emergence, Chemical Nature, Classification, Environmental Impact, and Analytical Challenges of Various Plastics
1.1 A Historical Perspective of Plastics
1.2 Chemical Nature and Synthesis Routes of Plastics
1.2.1 The Chemistry of Chain Reaction Polymerization
1.2.1.1 Chemistry of Free-Radical Polymerization
1.2.1.2 Chemistry of Ionic Polymerization
1.2.1.3 Chemistry of Coordination Polymerization
1.2.2 Chemistry of Step Reaction Polymerization
1.3 Types or Classification of Plastics
1.3.1 Classification Based on Chemical Structure, Crosslinking, and/ or Base Material
1.3.1.1 Thermoplastic
1.3.1.2 Elastomers
1.3.1.3 Thermosets
1.3.1.4 Polymer Compounds
1.3.2 Classification Based on Application of Material
1.3.2.1 Standard or Commodity Plastics
1.3.2.2 Engineering Plastics
1.3.2.3 Special Plastics
1.3.2.4 High-Performance Plastics
1.4 Environmental Impact and Analytical Challenges; an Overview
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 2 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools to Govern Macroplastics, Mesoplastics, Microplastics and Nanoplastics
2.1 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools at Regional or National Levels
2.1.1 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools in Asia
2.1.2 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools in Africa
2.1.3 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools in Europe and Oceania
2.1.4 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools in Central, South and North America
2.2 Laws, Regulations or Policy Tools as Collective Efforts
2.2.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
2.2.2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the United Nations Environment Programme
2.2.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
2.2.4 UNEP's Draft Resolution on Marine Litter and Microplastics
2.2.5 EURATEX
2.2.6 United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
2.2.7 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
2.2.8 UNEP's Regional Seas Conventions
2.2.9 Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission ( Helsinki Commission - HELCOM)
2.2.10 WTO Notifications under the TBT Agreement for Prevention of Microplastic Pollution
2.2.11 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
2.2.12 Global Partnership of Marine Litter
2.2.13 Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
2.2.14 Convention on Biological Diversity
2.2.15 Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
2.2.16 Stockholm Convention
2.3 Policy Considerations and Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3 Degradation Pathways of Various Plastics
3.1 Photo-Oxidative Degradation
3.2 Thermal Degradation of Plastics
3.3 Chemical Degradation of Plastics
3.4 Mechanical Degradation of Plastics
3.5 Atmospheric Oxidation and Hydrolytic Degradation
3.6 Biotic Degradation of Plastics
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4 Interaction of Inorganic and Organic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.1 Interaction of Inorganic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.1.1 Mechanism of Interaction of Inorganic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.1.1.1 Electrostatic Interactions
4.1.1.2 Sorption, Bioaccumulation, Complexation, and Co-precipitation
4.1.2 Factors Effecting the Interaction of Inorganic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.1.2.1 Effect of the Physicochemical Characteristics of Microplastics
4.1.2.2 Effect of Chemical Properties of Inorganic Pollutants
4.1.2.3 Effect of Environmental Factors
4.2 Interaction of Organic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.2.1 Mechanism of Interaction of Organic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.2.1.1 Electrostatic Interactions
4.2.1.2 Hydrophobic Interactions and Partition Effect
4.2.1.3 Hydrogen Bonding, Halogen Bonding, π–π Interactions and van der Waals Forces
4.2.2 Factors Effecting the Interaction of Organic Pollutants with Microplastics
4.2.2.1 Effect of the Physicochemical Characteristics of Microplastics
4.2.2.2 Effect of Properties of Organic Pollutants
4.2.2.3 Effect of Environmental Factors
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5 Impacts of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Biota
5.1 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Plant and Soil Characteristics
5.2 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Invertebrates
5.2.1 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Poriferans
5.2.2 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Cnidarians
5.2.3 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Annelids
5.2.4 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Echinoderms
5.2.5 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Arthropods
5.2.6 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Mollusk
5.3 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Vertebrates
5.3.1 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Amphibians
5.3.2 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Reptiles
5.3.3 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Fish
5.3.4 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Birds
5.3.5 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Mammals
5.3.5.1 Impact on Seals and Sea Otters
5.3.5.2 Impact on Whales
5.3.5.3 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Human Health
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6 Collection of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Various Environments and Associated Challenges
6.1 Sampling Methods for Microplastics and Nanoplastics
6.1.1 Selective Sampling
6.1.2 Bulk Samples
6.1.3 Volume-Reduced Samples
6.2 Aquatic Sampling of Microplastics and Nanoplastics
6.2.1 Non-discrete Sampling Devices
6.2.1.1 Nets as Sampling Device
6.2.1.2 Pumping Systems
6.2.2 Discrete Sampling Devices
6.2.3 Sampling Devices for the Surface Microlayer
6.3 Sediments Sampling of Microplastics and Nanoplastics
6.4 Atmospheric Sampling of Microplastics and Nanoplastics
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7 Separation of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Various Environments and Associated Challenges
7.1 Separation of Microplastics from Water Samples by Various Techniques and Associated Challenges
7.1.1 Filtration as Separation Technique
7.1.2 Sieving as Separation Technique
7.2 Separation of Microplastics from Sediment Samples by Various Techniques and Associated Challenges
7.2.1 Density-Based Separation Technique
7.2.2 Elutriation as Separation Technique
7.2.3 Froth Flotation and Oil Film Separation Techniques
7.3 Separation of Microplastics from Biological Samples by Various Techniques and Associated Challenges
7.3.1 Visual Identification as Separation Technique
7.3.2 Chemical and Enzymatic Digestion
7.4 Separation of Microplastics from Atmospheric Samples by Various Techniques and Associated Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8 Identification of Microplastics and Nanoplastics and Associated Analytical Challenges
8.1 Scanning Electron Microscope as an Identification Tool and Associated Challenges
8.2 Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry as Identification Tool and Associated Challenges
8.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy as an Identification Tool and Associated Analytical Challenges
8.4 Raman Spectroscopy as an Identification Tool and Associated Analytical Challenges
8.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy as an Identification Tool and Associated Analytical Challenges
8.6 MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry as an Identification Tool and Associated Analytical Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
Index