Microencapsulation in the Food Industry: A Practical Implementation Guide

Front Cover
Microencapsulation in the Food Industry
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
Foreword
Preface
1 Introduction to microencapsulation and controlled delivery in foods
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Microencapsulation defined
1.3 Reasons for microencapsulation
1.4 Types of microcapsules
1.5 Historical account of microencapsulation
1.6 Materials used for microencapsulation purposes
1.7 Microencapsulation techniques used within the food industry
1.8 Trends in microencapsulation
1.9 Challenges in microencapsulation of food ingredients
1.10 The future of microencapsulation of food ingredients
References
2 Review of microencapsulation patent landscape for the food and beverage industries
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Innovation trend
2.3 Microencapsulation technology-type advancement
2.4 Jurisdiction analysis
2.5 Word cloud analysis
2.6 Main industrial and academic players
2.7 Largest invention families
2.8 Top market-valued patents
2.9 Key patent matters
2.10 Licensing
2.11 Conclusion
References
Further reading
3 Factors and mechanisms in microencapsulation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Structural design of the microcapsule
3.3 Microcapsule or microsphere type
3.4 Microcapsule size, shape, and payload
3.5 Physicochemical factors
3.5.1 Molecular weight of the active agent
3.5.2 Functional moiety and surface charge
3.5.3 Concentration
3.5.4 Solubility
3.5.5 Wettability
3.5.6 Temperature
3.5.7 Process factors
3.6 Mechanism of diffusion
3.6.1 Zero-order or pseudo-zero-order diffusion model
3.6.2 Fickian diffusion model
3.6.3 First-order diffusion model
3.6.4 Higuchi’s diffusion model
3.6.5 Case II diffusion
3.6.6 Osmosis
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 Applications of mass and heat transfer in microencapsulation processes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Mechanism of diffusion
4.3 Zero-order or pseudo-zero-order diffusion model
4.4 Fickian diffusion model
4.4.1 Mass transfer in a microsphere morphology
4.4.2 Unsteady-state diffusion from a microsphere
4.4.3 Mass transfer in a microcapsule morphology
4.4.4 Analogy to heat transfer
4.5 First-order diffusion model
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Overview of microencapsulation process technologies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Process components
5.3 Processes
5.3.1 Atomization
5.3.2 Spray coating
5.3.3 Coextrusion
5.3.4 Emulsion based process
5.3.5 Other
5.4 Comparisons
5.4.1 Size
5.4.2 Morphology
5.4.3 Payload
5.4.4 Materials
5.4.5 Production scale
5.4.6 Cost
5.5 Emerging processes and trends
5.6 Process selection
References
6 Atomization and spray drying processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Atomization
6.3 Drying configurations
6.3.1 Mass transfer and heat transfer considerations
6.4 Operational practice
6.5 Feed preparation
6.6 Recent advances in atomization and spray-drying processes
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 New advances in spray-drying processes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Technologies
7.3 Computational optimization
7.4 Analyzing the drying process of a droplet
7.5 Drying kinetics as input for computational fluid dynamics
7.5.1 Spray drying equipment and controls
7.5.2 Temperature control
7.5.3 Flexible spray drying, agglomeration, and granulates
7.5.4 Cleaning-in-place
7.5.5 Sanitary bag filters
7.5.6 Process controls
7.5.7 Process monitoring
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Fluid bed coating-based microencapsulation
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Wurster (bottom spray)
8.2.1 Design
8.2.1.1 Fluidizing air
8.2.1.2 Nozzle
8.2.1.3 Scaling
8.2.1.4 Continuous process
8.2.2 Wurster process control parameters
8.2.2.1 Fluidization
8.2.2.2 Partition
8.2.2.3 Temperature
8.2.2.4 Spray rate
8.2.2.5 Atomization
8.2.3 Particle size
8.3 Top spray
8.4 Tangential spray
8.5 Core materials
8.6 Coating materials
8.7 Applications
8.7.1 Uniformity
8.7.2 Protection
8.7.3 Handling
8.7.4 Granulation
8.7.5 Controlled release
8.8 Cost
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Extrusion-based microencapsulation for the food industry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mixing
9.3 Properties and characterization of amorphous solids
9.4 Evolution of extrusion technology
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Spheronization, granulation, pelletization, and agglomeration processes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basic equipment
10.3 Batch fluidized beds for drying, agglomeration, and coating
10.4 Continuous fluidized beds for drying, agglomeration, spray granulation, and coating
10.5 Procell type of continuous spouted beds for drying, agglomeration, spray granulation, and coating
10.6 Technical options for pelletization
10.7 Technical options for high-shear granulation
10.8 Technical options for extrusion
10.9 Application case studies
10.10 Formulation of enzymes
10.11 Formulation of vitamins
10.12 Encapsulation of volatile ingredients
10.13 Conclusion
References
11 Annular nozzle in laminar flow encapsulation processes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Process technologies
11.2.1 Laminar flow breakup
11.2.2 Vibrational drip casting
11.2.3 Submerged nozzle
11.2.4 Flow focusing
11.2.5 Centrifugal extrusion and spinning disk
11.2.6 General principle
11.3 Equipment
11.3.1 Nisco engineering
11.3.2 Buchi
11.3.3 BRACE
11.3.4 Freund Corporation
11.3.5 Other annular jet systems
11.4 Materials
11.4.1 Encapsulation of hydrophobic materials
11.4.2 Encapsulation of hydrophilic agents
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Monodispersed microencapsulation technologies
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Monodisperse particle fabrication technologies
12.2.1 Microfluidics
12.2.2 Electrohydrodynamic spraying
12.2.3 Jet cutting
12.2.4 Rotary disk atomization
12.2.5 Vibratory process
12.2.6 Flow focusing
12.2.7 Vibratory process combined with a carrier stream
12.3 Conclusion
References
13 Microencapsulation by complex coacervation processes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Historical theories and recent developments
13.3 Selection of shell wall material
13.3.1 Proteins
13.3.2 Polysaccharides
13.4 Coacervation encapsulation process
13.5 Parameters in coacervation
13.5.1 Material properties
13.5.2 pH
13.5.3 Ionic strength
13.5.4 Temperature
13.5.5 Mixing ratio
13.5.6 Total polymer concentration
13.5.7 Shear strength and rheology
13.5.8 Charge density
13.6 Characterization of coacervate microcapsules
13.6.1 Structure and morphology
13.6.2 Rheological properties
13.6.3 Size and size distribution of microcapsules
13.6.4 Encapsulation efficiency
13.7 Applications
13.7.1 Stability
13.7.2 Controlled release
13.7.3 Bioavailability
13.7.4 Limitation of complex coacervation microencapsulation processes
13.8 Conclusion
References
14 Application of liposomes in the food industry
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What are liposomes?
14.3 Liposome stability
14.3.1 Hydrolysis of liposomes
14.3.2 Effect of buffer and pH
14.3.3 Oxidation of unsaturated phospholipids
14.3.4 Saturated ether lipids
14.3.5 Application of liposome as a solubility tool
14.3.6 Application of piposomes in the food and beverage industry
14.3.7 Application of liposomes in protecting small molecules and enzymes
14.3.8 Liposome encapsulation of antimicrobials
14.3.9 Application of liposomes in the accelerated ripening of cheese
14.3.10 Encapsulation of Maillard browning reagent in liposomes
14.4 Conclusion
References
Further reading
15 Nanoencapsulation in the food industry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Technology advantages
15.3 Classification of nanoencapsulated systems
15.4 Liquid–liquid systems
15.5 Microemulsions
15.6 Nanoemulsions
15.7 Liposomes
15.8 Solid–lipid nanoparticles
15.9 Solid–solid systems
15.10 Nanofibers
15.11 Conclusion
References
16 Selection of materials for microencapsulation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Morphological design
16.3 Material selection
16.4 Hydrophilic materials
16.4.1 Proteins
16.4.2 Carbohydrates
16.5 Hydrophobic materials
16.6 Conclusions
References
17 Starch-based materials for microencapsulation
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Starch and starch modifications
17.2.1 The nature of starches
17.2.2 Food starch modifications
17.2.2.1 Chemical modifications
17.2.2.2 Physical treatments
17.2.2.3 Enzymatic treatment
17.2.2.4 Hydrophobic modification
17.3 Characteristics of octenyl succinic anhydride starches
17.4 Using modified starches for microencapsulation
17.4.1 Typical spray drying practices using octenyl succinic anhydride starches
17.4.2 A dynamic model and its relevance to matrix materials
17.4.3 Case studies
17.4.3.1 Case 1—flavor encapsulation in the spray drying process
17.4.3.2 Case 2—vitamin encapsulation
17.4.3.3 Case 3—fat encapsulation
17.4.3.4 Case 4—gelatin replacement in spray congealing
17.4.3.5 Case 5—extrusion
17.4.3.6 Case 6—plating
17.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
18 Use of milk proteins for encapsulation of food ingredients
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Milk proteins and their function in encapsulation
18.2.1 Milk proteins
18.2.2 Function of milk proteins in encapsulation
18.2.3 Encapsulation technologies used when formulating with milk proteins
18.3 Encapsulation systems using caseins and whey proteins
18.3.1 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating hydrophobic components
18.3.2 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating hydrophilic components
18.3.3 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating probiotics
18.4 Milk proteins in combination with other materials as the encapsulating matrix
18.4.1 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating hydrophobic components
18.4.2 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating hydrophilic components
18.4.3 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating probiotics
18.5 Patent-based strategies
18.6 Conclusion
References
19 Natural and clean label ingredients for microencapsulation
19.1 Introduction and background
19.1.1 Clean label—definition, origin, trend
19.1.2 Microencapsulation of active ingredients and clean label trends
19.1.3 Microencapsulation carrier materials falling out of favor
19.1.4 Communicating clean label
19.1.5 Clean label microencapsulation—a regulatory perspective
19.1.6 Natural flavors may contain synthetic nonflavoring components
19.1.7 “Natural foods” litigation
19.2 Natural macrostructures
19.2.1 Oleosomes
19.2.2 Pollen
19.2.3 Yeast
19.3 Natural ingredients
19.3.1 Carbohydrates
19.3.1.1 Gum Arabic
19.3.1.2 Sprouted rice flour
19.3.1.3 Angum gum
19.3.1.4 Prickly pear mucilage
19.3.1.5 Inulin
19.3.1.6 Cereal beta glucans
19.3.1.7 Alginate
19.3.1.8 Chitosan
19.3.2 Proteins
19.3.2.1 Soy proteins
19.3.2.2 Corn protein
19.3.2.3 Other plant proteins
19.3.2.4 Milk proteins
19.3.3 Fats and waxes
19.3.4 Calcium carbonate
19.3.5 Surfactants
19.4 Conclusion
References
20 Gelatin and other proteins for microencapsulation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Gelatin
20.2.1 Gelatin manufacture: from collagen to gelatin
20.2.2 Gelation of gelatin
20.2.3 Gelatin as shell material in microencapsulation
20.2.3.1 Spray-drying
20.2.3.2 Gelation
20.2.3.3 Coacervation
20.3 Soy protein
20.3.1 Spray-drying
20.3.2 Coacervation
20.3.3 Gelation
20.4 Zein protein
20.4.1 Spray-drying
20.4.2 Solvent evaporation
20.5 Pea protein
20.5.1 Spray-drying
20.5.2 Coacervation
20.5.3 Gelation
20.6 Other proteins
20.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
21 Hydrocolloids and gums as encapsulating agents
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Materials
21.2.1 Gum Arabic
21.2.1.1 Modified gum Arabic
21.2.2 Alginates
21.3 Applications
21.3.1 Antioxidants
21.3.2 Flavors
21.3.2.1 Case study—gum Arabic as a wall material for spray dried flavors
21.3.2.2 Case study—gum Arabic in combination with maltodextrin as a wall material for spray dried flavors
21.3.3 Microorganisms
21.3.4 Other applications
21.3.4.1 Case study—gum Arabic as a wall material for medium-chain triglyceride oil
21.4 Conclusion
References
22 Fats and waxes in microencapsulation of food ingredients
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Structural diversity in fats and waxes
22.2.1 Hydrocarbon-rich substances
22.2.2 Simple lipids
22.2.3 Lipid-derived substances
22.3 Physicochemical properties of fats and waxes
22.3.1 Melt and crystallization in fats and waxes
22.3.2 Moisture barrier properties of fats and waxes
22.3.3 Surface activity in fats and waxes
22.3.4 Chemical stability of fats and waxes
22.3.5 Physical stability of fats and waxes
22.4 Lipids in microencapsulation applications
22.4.1 Techniques
22.4.2 Applications
22.4.2.1 Flavors
22.4.2.2 Vitamins and minerals
22.4.2.3 Food additives
22.4.2.4 Enzymes and microorganisms
22.5 Conclusion
References
23 Yeast cells and yeast-based materials for microencapsulation
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Description of the yeast cell as encapsulation material
23.3 The yeast cell encapsulation process
23.4 Parameters that affect yeast encapsulation performance
23.4.1 Origin and pretreatment of yeast cells used for encapsulation
23.4.2 The active ingredient
23.4.3 Medium of encapsulation
23.4.4 Encapsulation temperature
23.4.5 Mass ratio compound:yeast cells
23.5 Properties of yeast microcapsules
23.5.1 Encapsulation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds and high loading
23.5.2 Yeast encapsulation and protection
23.5.3 Release properties and controlled/targeted delivery of yeast encapsulated compounds
23.5.4 Yeast encapsulation and sensory evaluation
23.5.5 Antioxidant properties and solubility of the yeast encapsulated compound
23.5.6 Nutritional value and anticancer properties of yeast cells and yeast microcapsules
23.6 Applications of yeast microcapsules in the food industry
23.7 Yeast encapsulation patents
23.8 Conclusion
References
24 Testing tools and physical, chemical, and microbiological characterization of microencapsulated systems
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Physical characterization
24.2.1 Morphology and size distribution
24.2.2 Electron microscopy
24.2.3 Particle sizing methods
24.2.4 Mechanical strength
24.2.5 Glass transition temperature and degree of crystallinity
24.2.6 Flowability
24.3 Chemical characterization
24.3.1 Gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography
24.3.2 Flavor active dispersion
24.3.3 Flavor retention and stability
24.3.3.1 Flavor retention
24.3.3.2 Flavor stability
24.3.3.3 Characterization of flavor release: methods, rates, and mechanisms
24.3.3.3.1 Release rates
24.3.3.3.2 Mechanism of release
24.3.3.3.2.1 Release by physical rupture
24.3.3.3.2.2 Release by diffusion
24.3.3.3.2.3 Release by dissolution or melting
24.3.3.3.2.4 Release by biodegradation
24.3.3.4 Oxidation
24.3.4 Safety testing
24.3.4.1 Toxicology
24.3.4.2 Microbiology
24.4 Conclusion
References
25 Stability characterization and sensory testing in food products containing microencapsulants
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Assessing stability
25.3 Factors affecting wall stability
25.3.1 Surface morphology and characteristics
25.3.1.1 Microscopy
25.3.1.2 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
25.3.2 Particle size
25.3.3 Moisture content and water activity
25.4 Factors affecting core stability
25.4.1 Environmental factors affecting core stability
25.4.1.1 Light
25.4.1.2 pH
25.4.1.3 Temperature
25.4.2 Effect of oxidation on core stability
25.4.2.1 Measurement of core oxidation
25.4.2.2 Measurement of surface oxidation
25.5 Sensory impacts of microencapsulated ingredients in foods
25.5.1 The field of sensory evaluation
25.6 Sensory attributes and human senses
25.6.1 Appearance and vision
25.6.2 Taste and gustation
25.6.3 Odor and olfaction
25.6.4 Texture and touch
25.7 Considerations for sensory testing of microencapsulated food ingredients
25.8 Choosing a sensory methodology for testing
25.9 Sensory impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
25.9.1 Textural impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
25.9.2 Flavor and odor impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
25.9.3 The impact on hedonic ratings and consumer perception due to microencapsulated food ingredients
25.10 Resources for detailed case studies on microencapsulation
25.11 Conclusions
References
26 Regulatory considerations of encapsulation used in the food industry
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Animal derivatives
26.3 Allergens
26.4 Genetic modification and organic
26.5 “Natural” claims
26.6 Nutritional content
26.7 Safe consumption
26.8 Safe handling
26.9 Conclusion
References
Further reading
27 Novel concepts and challenges of flavor microencapsulation
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Challenges of flavor encapsulation
27.2.1 Typical flavor composition
27.2.2 Characterization of flavor phase equilibrium through the use of vapor pressure, molecular size, solubility, taste an...
27.2.2.1 Vapor pressure
27.2.2.2 Molecular size and transport
27.2.2.3 Phase equilibrium
27.2.2.3.1 Chemical potential and intermolecular forces
27.2.2.3.2 Solubility, linear solvation energy relationships, and flavor delivery
27.3 Summary of common flavor microencapsulation techniques
27.3.1 Spray-drying
27.3.2 Spray-chilling
27.3.3 Melt injection
27.3.4 Melt extrusion
27.3.5 Molecular inclusion complexation
27.3.6 Coacervation
27.3.7 Annular jet and biopolymer microgels
27.3.8 Novel techniques
27.3.8.1 Evaporation-induced self-assembly
27.3.8.2 Electrostatic spray atomization and spray-drying
27.3.8.3 Nanotechnology for flavor microencapsulation
27.4 Summary of flavor microencapsulation materials
27.5 Applications of microencapsulated flavor
27.5.1 Controlled release
27.5.1.1 Chewing gum
27.5.1.1.1 Upfront flavor release
27.5.1.1.2 Sustained flavor release
27.5.1.1.3 Flavor-changing chewing gum
27.5.1.2 Flavor-changing ice cream
27.5.1.3 Encapsulated flavor in a beverage straw
27.5.2 Protections
27.5.2.1 Chewing gum
27.5.2.2 Hard candy
27.5.2.3 Bakery products
27.5.2.4 Dry mix beverage
27.5.3 Taste masking
27.5.3.1 Masking of fish odor
27.5.3.2 Caffeine
27.5.3.3 Flavor masking by molecular inclusion
27.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
28 Flavor release and application in chewing gum and confections
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Why microencapsulate flavors?
28.3 Microencapsulation forms
28.4 Microencapsulation forms—other types
28.5 Chewing gum applications—designing for customized performance
28.6 Microencapsulated flavors—when to use them?
28.7 To be effective, microencapsulated flavors also require sustained and long-lasting sweetness and sourness
28.8 Where is microencapsulated flavor applied in chewing gum applications?
28.9 Challenges in microencapsulating flavors
28.10 Other confectionery applications
28.11 Chewing gum patent review—main companies: Wrigley (now Mars Wrigley), Mondelez (former Warner–Lambert/Cadbury–Adams/K...
28.12 Conclusion
Appendix 1
Chewing gum patent review
References
29 Protection and delivery of probiotics for use in foods
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Microencapsulation and delivery concepts for probiotics
29.2.1 Entrapment in polymer matrix
29.2.2 Fat and polymer coating
29.2.3 Extrusion–spheronization
29.3 Drying methods
29.3.1 Freeze-drying
29.3.2 Drying by glass formation
29.3.3 Drying by foam formation
29.3.4 Controlled low-temperature vacuum dehydration
29.3.5 Electrostatic spray-drying
29.3.6 Perspective on drying methods
29.4 Delivery forms
29.4.1 Tablets
29.4.2 Soft gel capsule
29.4.3 Oil carrier
29.4.4 Probiotic gummies
29.5 Methods for estimating process loss and product shelf-life
29.5.1 Epifluorescence microscopic assessment
29.5.2 Estimating storage shelf-life
29.6 Conclusion
References
Further reading
30 Micro- and nanoencapsulation of omega-3 and other nutritional fatty acids: challenges and novel solutions
30.1 Introduction
30.2 The health benefits of omega-3 and other nutritional fatty acids
30.3 Microencapsulation for the protection and delivery of omega-3 and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
30.3.1 Spray-drying and other spray-based technologies
30.3.2 Nano spray-drying
30.3.3 Freeze-drying
30.3.4 Complex coacervation
30.3.5 Nanoemulsions and self-emulsified emulsions
30.3.6 Other microencapsulation technologies
30.4 Oxidative stability and bioavailability
30.4.1 Chemical properties and oxidation stability of encapsulated fatty acids
30.4.2 Bioavailability and bioequivalence
30.5 Novel delivery solutions with a specific focus on brain health
30.5.1 Case study I: the “Axona” story
30.5.2 Case study II: the “Souvenaid” story
30.5.3 Examples of novel delivery solutions
30.5.4 Multinutrient and multimodal approaches for elderly’s brain health
30.6 Concluding remarks
References
31 Microencapsulation of vitamins, minerals, and nutraceuticals for food applications
31.1 Microencapsulation as a tool for effective delivery of micronutrients and nutraceuticals
31.1.1 Importance of microencapsulation in fortified and functional food development
31.1.2 Microencapsulation technologies for developing fortified and functional foods
31.1.3 Encapsulants commonly used for delivery of micronutrients or nutraceuticals
31.2 Criteria for developing microencapsulated delivery systems for micronutrients and nutraceuticals
31.2.1 In vitro bioavailability of micronutrients and nutraceuticals
31.2.2 Encapsulation efficiency
31.2.3 Microcapsule morphology and size
31.2.4 Storage stability
31.3 Development of fortified and functional foods
31.3.1 Importance of food fortification in fighting micronutrient malnutrition
31.3.2 Technical challenges in fortification of staple foods
31.3.3 New trends of tutraceutical delivery through functional foods
31.4 Case study: technical approaches to the fortification of staple foods
31.4.1 Salt
31.4.1.1 Microencapsulation of iodine by spray drying and fluidized bedd
31.4.1.2 Encapsulation of ferrous fumarate to mimic salt grains
31.4.1.3 Attachment of spray-dried ferrous fumarate microcapsules to coarse salt
31.4.2 Rice
31.4.2.1 Fortification of extruded rice grains with vitamin A
31.4.2.2 Fortification of extruded rice grains with multiple micronutrients
31.4.3 Application of the extrusion-based microencapsulation technology platform to nutraceutical delivery through function...
31.5 Conclusion and perspectives
References
32 Development and scale-up of microencapsulation-based technology for multimicronutrient fortification of salt
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Generation I: double fortified salt with iodine encapsulation
32.3 Generation II: double fortified salt—pilot and commercial scale trials with fluidized bed technology
a Granulation
b Coating
32.4 Generation III: double fortified salt with extruded iron premix—pilot-testing in India
32.5 Challenges and solutions during scale-up for double fortified salt technology
32.6 Engineering extension of microencapsulation technologies
32.7 Interaction of micronutrients
32.8 Development of multiple micronutrient premixes
32.9 Impact of the salt fortification technology on the bioaccessibility and stability of the micronutrients in cooked food
32.10 Full-scale production of DFS, TFS, QFS, and MFS in India
32.11 Future directions
32.12 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
33 Encapsulation for taste modification
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Flavor perception
33.2.1 Taste
33.2.2 Smell
33.2.3 Convergence of taste and smell
33.3 Taste modification strategies
33.4 Encapsulation as a taste modification tool
33.4.1 Encapsulation techniques
33.4.1.1 Matrix systems
33.4.1.2 Reservoir systems
33.4.1.3 Molecular inclusion
33.4.2 Carrier materials
33.5 Dissolution testing and sensory evaluation
33.6 Conclusion
References
34 Microencapsulated enzymes in food applications
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Food enzyme market
34.2.1 Enzyme manufacturers
34.2.2 Enzyme production
34.3 Enzyme properties and challenges
34.3.1 Enzyme systems
34.3.2 Safety and hygiene
34.4 Encapsulation
34.4.1 Spray-drying and agglomeration
34.4.2 Spray-chilling or prilling
34.4.3 Spray coating
34.4.4 Spray granulation
34.4.5 High shear/wet granulation
34.4.6 Extrusion
34.4.7 Liposomes
34.5 Food applications
34.5.1 Baking
34.5.2 Sweeteners
34.5.3 Dairy
34.5.4 Food supplements
34.6 Conclusion
References
35 Advances in lecithin-based nanoemulsions within the animal and human nutritional markets
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Emulsion overview
35.3 Oil-in-water nanoemulsions
35.3.1 Composition
35.3.2 Composition of nanoemulsions
35.3.2.1 Lipophilic phase
35.3.2.2 Hydrophilic phase
35.3.2.3 Emulsifiers
35.3.3 Preparation of nanoemulsions
35.4 Lecithin-based nanoemulsions
35.4.1 Characteristics of lecithin nanoemulsions
35.4.2 Benefits of lecithin nanoemulsions
35.4.2.1 Ease of addition
35.4.2.2 Protection of nutritional payload
35.4.2.3 Increased bioavailability
35.5 Advances and future endeavors for lecithin-based nanoemulsions
35.5.1 Loading characteristics of lecithin nanoemulsions
35.5.2 Dry-powdered form of nanoemulsions
35.5.3 Economics
35.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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