Microconstituents in the Environment: Occurrence,Fate, Removal and Management

Microconstituents in the Environment
Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Part I Fundamental Ideas Regarding Microconstituents in the Environment
1 Introduction to Microconstituents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Microconstituents
1.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
1.2.2 Pesticides
1.2.3 Disinfection By-Products
1.2.4 Industrial Chemicals
1.2.5 Algal Toxins
1.3 Source of Microconstituents
1.3.1 Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in the Environment
1.3.2 Source of Pesticides in the Environment
1.3.3 Source of Disinfection By-Products in the Environment
1.3.4 Source of Industrial Chemicals in the Environment
1.3.5 Source of Algal Toxins in the Environment
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microconstituents
1.5 Impact on Human Society and Ecosystem
1.5.1 Impact on Human Health
1.5.2 Impact on the Ecosystem
1.6 The Structure of the Book
1.7 Conclusions
2 Occurrence
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Goals of Occurrence Survey
2.3 Environmental Occurrence of Microconstituents
2.3.1 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Groundwater
2.3.2 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water
2.3.3 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Marine Water
2.3.4 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Drinking Water
2.3.5 Occurrence of Microconstituents in WWTPs Effluent and Sludge
2.3.6 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Soil
2.3.7 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Foods and Vegetables
2.4 Challenges and Future Prospective in Occurrence Survey
2.5 Conclusions
3 Sampling, Characterization, and Monitoring
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sampling Protocols of Different Microconstituents
3.2.1 Sample Preparation
3.2.1.1 Traditional Sampling Techniques
3.2.1.2 Automatic Samplers and Pumps
3.2.1.3 Pore-Water Sampling
3.2.2 Extraction of Microconstituents
3.2.3 Passive Sampling
3.2.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
3.2.5 Internal vs. External Quality Control
3.3 Quantification and Analysis of Microconstituents
3.3.1 Detection Techniques
3.3.2 UV-Visible Optical Methods
3.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy
3.3.4 Chromatographic Methods Tandem Mass Spectrometry
3.3.5 Biological Assay for Detection
3.3.6 Sensors and Biosensors for Detection
3.4 Source Tracking Techniques
3.4.1 Performance Criteria
3.4.2 Tracer Selection
3.4.3 Different Source Tracking Methods
3.4.4 Statistical Approaches in Source Tracking Modeling
3.4.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.4.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
3.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications for Monitoring
3.5.1 Basic Concepts and Principles
3.5.2 Measurement and Estimation Techniques
3.5.3 Applications for Microconstituents Monitoring
3.6 Conclusions
4 Toxicity Assessment of Microconstituents in the Environment
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microplastics in the Environment
4.3 Microplastics Pathways, Fate, and Behavior in the Environment
4.4 Concentration of Microplastics in the Environment
4.5 Influence of Microplastics on Microorganisms
4.6 Toxicity Mechanisms
4.6.1 Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem
4.6.2 Effect on Human Health
4.6.3 Toxicity Testing
4.6.3.1 Test Without PE MPs
4.6.3.2 With Microbeads
4.6.3.3 Analysis Limitations
4.7 Risk Assessment
4.8 Future Challenges in Quantification of the Environment
4.9 Conclusions
Part II The Fate and Transportation of Microconstituents
5 Mathematical Transport System of Microconstituents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Need for Mathematical Models
5.3 Fundamentals of Pollutant Transport Modeling
5.4 Development of Numerical Model
5.4.1 Advective Transport
5.4.2 Dispersive Transport
5.4.3 Discretization in Space and Time
5.5 Application of Models
5.6 Softwares for Pollutant Transport
5.6.1 Hydrus Model for Pollution Transport
5.7 Mathematical and Computational Limitation
5.8 Conclusions
6 Groundwater Contamination by Microconstituents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Major Microconstituents in Groundwater
6.3 Mechanisms for Groundwater Contamination By Microconstituents
6.4 Modeling Transport of Microconstituents
6.5 Limitations
6.6 Concluding Remarks
7 Microconstituents in Surface Water
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Major Microconstituents in Surface Water
7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
7.2.2 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
7.2.3 Industrial Chemicals
7.2.4 Pesticides
7.3 Water Cycles, Sources, and Pathways of Microconstituents, and the Applicability of Mathematical Models
7.3.1 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
7.3.2 Pesticides in Surface Water
7.3.3 The Applicability of Mathematical Models
7.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mathematical Tools
7.4 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments
7.4.1 Adsorption of Microconstituents
7.4.2 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Caffeine
7.4.3 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Steroidal Estrogen
7.5 Modeling of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments
7.5.1 BASINS System Overview
7.5.2 HSPF Model Evaluation (Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran Model)
7.5.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of SWAT Pesticide Modeling
7.5.3.1 SWAT Model Description
7.5.3.2 SWAT Model Set-Up
7.5.4 Model Sensitivity Analysis, Calibration, and Validation
7.5.4.1 Coefficient of Determination, R2
7.5.4.2 Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient, NSE
7.5.5 Basin Level Modeling (Pesticide Transport)
7.6 Conclusions
8 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 The Sources of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants
8.1.2 The Behavior of Microconstituents
8.2 The Fate of Microconstituents in WWTPs
8.2.1 Traditional Wastewater Treatment Process
8.2.2 The Fate of MCs in WWTPs
8.2.3 Biodegradation of Microconstituents
8.2.4 Sorption Onto Sludge Solids in WWTPs
8.3 Treatment Methods for Microconstituents Removal
8.3.1 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
8.3.2 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
8.3.3 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)
8.3.4 Trickling Filter
8.4 Critical Parameters in WWTP Operation for MCs
8.4.1 ASP Operation
8.4.2 MBR Operation
8.4.3 MBBR Operation
8.4.4 TF Operation
8.5 Conclusions
9 Various Perspectives on Occurrence, Sources, Measurement Techniques, Transport, and Insights Into Future Scope for Research of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification and Properties of Microplastics
9.2.1 Classification of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.2.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.2.3 Qualitative Assessment to Identify Microplastics
9.3 Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.4 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.5 Occurrence and Ambient Concentration of Microplastics
9.6 Factors Affecting Pollutant Concentration
9.7 Transport of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.8 Modeling Techniques in Prediction of Fate in the Atmosphere
9.9 Control Technologies in Contaminant Treatment
9.10 Challenges in Future Climate Conditions
9.11 Future Scope of Research
9.12 Conclusions
10 Modeling Microconstituents Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques
10.1 Basic Components of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Models
10.1.1 Source of Light or Energy
10.1.2 Radiation and the Atmosphere
10.1.3 Interaction With the Subject Target
10.1.4 Sensing Systems
10.1.5 Data Collection
10.1.6 Interpretation and Analysis
10.2 Coupling GIS With 3D Model Analysis and Visualization
10.2.1 Modeling and Simulation Approaches
10.2.1.1 Deterministic Models
10.2.1.2 Stochastic Models
10.2.1.3 Rule-Based Models
10.2.1.4 Multi-Agent Simulation of Complex Systems
10.2.2 GIS Implementation
10.2.2.1 Full Integration–Embedded Coupling
10.2.2.2 Integration Under a Common Interface–Tight Coupling
10.2.2.3 Loose Coupling
10.2.2.4 Modeling Environment Linked to GIS
10.3 Emerging and Application
10.3.1 Multispectral Remote Sensing
10.3.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
10.3.3 Geographic Information System (GIS)
10.3.4 Applications
10.3.4.1 Urban Environment Management
10.3.4.2 Wasteland Environment
10.3.4.3 Coastal and Marine Environment
10.4 Uncertainty in Environmental Modeling
10.5 Future of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Pollutant Monitoring
10.5.1 Types of Satellite-Based Environmental Monitoring
10.5.1.1 Atmosphere Monitoring
10.5.1.2 Air Quality Monitoring
10.5.1.3 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC)
10.5.1.4 Hazard Monitoring
10.5.1.5 Marine and Phytoplankton Studies
10.6 Identification of Microconstituents Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques
10.7 Conclusions
Part III Various Physicochemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents
11 Process Feasibility and Sustainability of Struvite Crystallization From Wastewater Through Electrocoagulation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Struvite Crystallization Through Electrocoagulation
11.2.1 Working Principle
11.2.2 Types of Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.1 Batch Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.2 Continuous Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.3 Advantages of Electrocoagulation Over Other Methods for Struvite Precipitation
11.3 Influential Parameters Affecting Struvite Crystallization
11.3.1 pH of the Medium
11.3.2 Magnesium Source and Mg2+: PO43– Molar Ratio
11.3.3 Current Density
11.3.4 Voltage and Current Efficiency
11.3.5 Electrode Type and Interelectrode Distance
11.3.6 Stirring Speed, Reaction Time, and Seeding
11.3.7 Presence of Competitive Ions and Purity of Struvite Crystals
11.4 Energy, Economy, and Environmental Contribution of Struvite Precipitation by Electrocoagulation
11.5 Summary and Future Perspectives
12 Adsorption of Microconstituents
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Adsorption Mechanism
12.3 Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics
12.3.1 Adsorption Isotherms
12.3.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm
12.3.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm
12.3.1.3 Dubinin–Radushkevich Isotherm
12.3.1.4 Redlich–Peterson Isotherm
12.3.1.5 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) Isotherm
12.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics
12.3.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Equation
12.3.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Equation
12.3.2.3 Elovich Model
12.3.2.4 Intraparticle Diffusion Model
12.4 Factors Affecting Adsorption Processes
12.4.1 Surface Area
12.4.2 Contact Time
12.4.3 Nature and Initial Concentration of Adsorbate
12.4.4 pH
12.4.5 Nature and Dose of Adsorbent
12.4.6 Interfering Substance
12.5 Multi-Component Preference Analysis
12.6 Conventional and Emerging Adsorbents
12.6.1 Conventional Adsorbents
12.6.2 Commercial Activated Carbons
12.6.3 Inorganic Material
12.6.4 Ion-Exchange Resins
12.6.5 Emerging/Non-Conventional Adsorbents
12.6.5.1 Natural Adsorbents
12.6.5.2 Agricultural Wastes
12.6.5.3 Industrial By-Product (Industrial Solid Wastes)
12.6.5.4 Solid Waste-Based Activated Carbons
12.6.5.5 Bio-Sorbents
12.6.5.6 Miscellaneous Adsorbents
12.7 Desirable Properties and Surface Modification of Adsorbents
12.7.1 Desorption/Regeneration Studies
12.7.2 Column Studies
12.7.2.1 Surface Modification of Adsorbents
12.8 Disposal Methods of Adsorbents and Concentrate
12.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Adsorption
12.9.1 Advantages
12.9.2 Disadvantages
12.10 Conclusions
13 Ion Exchange Process for Removal of Microconstituents From Water and Wastewater
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Properties of Different Ion Exchange Resin
13.3 Functionalities of Polymeric Resins
13.4 Ion Exchange Mechanism
13.5 Ion Exchange Kinetics
13.6 Application of Ion Exchange for Treatment of Microconstituents
13.7 Summary
14 Membrane-Based Separation Technologies for Removal of Microconstituents
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Classification of Available MBSTs
14.3 Classification of Membranes and Membrane Materials and Their Properties
14.3.1 Classification of Membranes
14.3.2 Classification and Properties of Membrane Materials
14.3.2.1 Membrane Classification
14.3.2.1.1 Cellulose Derivatives
14.3.2.1.2 Aromatic Polyamides
14.3.2.1.3 Polysulphone
14.3.2.1.4 Polyimides
14.3.2.1.5 Polytetrafluoroethylene
14.3.2.1.6 Polycarbonates
14.3.2.1.7 Polypropylene
14.3.2.2 Cutting-Edge Membranes
14.4 Fundamental Principles and Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal via Different MBSTs
14.4.1 Fundamental Principles
14.4.2 Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal
14.4.2.1 Modes of Operation
14.4.2.2 Definitions of Some Frequently Used Terms in MBSTs
14.5 Application of the MBSTs for Removing Microconstituents From Aqueous Matrices
14.6 Membrane Fouling
14.6.1 Classification of Membrane Fouling
14.6.1.1 Particulate or Colloidal Fouling
14.6.1.2 Biological or Microbial Fouling
14.6.1.3 Scaling or Precipitation Fouling
14.6.1.4 Organic Fouling
14.6.2 Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling
14.6.3 Control of Membrane Fouling
14.7 Future Perspectives
14.8 Conclusions
15 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Microconstituents Removal in Aquatic Environments
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of AOPs
15.3 Fundamentals of Different AOPs
15.4 Fundamentals of Individual AOPs
15.4.1 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Ozonation Process
15.4.2 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by UV-Irradiation
15.4.3 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Photocatalysis
15.4.4 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Electrochemical Oxidation (EO) or Anodic Oxidation (AO) and Sonolysis
15.4.5 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by the Fenton Process
15.5 Fundamentals of Integrated AOPs
15.6 Fundamentals of UV-Irradiation-Based Integrated AOPs
15.6.1 UV/H2O2
15.6.2 UV Photocatalysis/Ozonation
15.6.3 UV/Fenton Process
15.6.4 UV/Persulfate (PS) or Permonosulfate (PMS)
15.6.5 UV/Cl2
15.7 Fundamentals of Ozonation-Based Integrated AOPs
15.7.1 Ozonation/H2O2
15.7.2 Ozonation/PS or PMS
15.8 Fundamentals of Fenton Process-Based Integrated AOPs
15.8.1 Heterogeneous Fenton Process
15.8.2 Photo-Fenton Process
15.8.3 Sono-Fenton Process
15.9 Fundamentals of Electrochemical-Based Integrated AOPs
15.9.1 Electro-Fenton Process
15.9.2 Sono-Electro-Fenton Process
15.9.3 Photo-Electro-Fenton Process
15.10 Application of Individual/Integrated AOPs for Microconstituents Removal
15.10.1 PPCP Removal
15.10.2 Pesticide Removal
15.10.3 Surfactant Removal
15.10.4 PFAS Removal
15.11 Future Perspectives
15.12 Conclusions
Part IV Various Physico-Chemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents
16 Aerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Aerobic Biological Systems/Processes
16.2.1 High-Rate Systems
16.2.1.1 Suspended Growth Processes
16.2.1.2 Attached Growth Processes
16.2.2 Low-Rate Systems
16.3 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes
16.3.1 ASPs
16.3.2 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes
16.3.3 MBR and Membranes Technology
16.3.4 ASPs and/or Trickling Filters
16.3.5 Lagoons and Constructed Wetlands
16.3.6 Mixed Technologies
16.4 Aerobic Biodegradation of Selected CECs
16.4.1 Hormones and Their Conjugates
16.4.2 Nanoparticles (NPs) and Nanomaterials (NMs)
16.4.3 Microplastics
16.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
16.6 Conclusions
17 Anaerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Types of AD Reactors and Current Status of AD Technology
17.2.1 Suspended Growth Process
17.2.1.1 Anaerobic Contact Reactor (ACR)
17.2.1.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor
17.2.2 Attached Growth Process
17.2.3 AnMBRs
17.2.4 Current Status of AD Technology
17.3 Mechanisms of Pollutant Removal in AD Processes
17.3.1 The Hydrolysis Stage
17.3.2 The Acidogenesis Stage
17.3.3 The Acetogenesis Stage
17.3.4 The Methanogenesis Stage
17.4 AD Technology for Treatment of MCs
17.4.1 Key Characteristics of Selected AD Systems for MCs Removal
17.4.1.1 Reactor Configurations and Combinations of Different Methods
17.4.1.2 Removal of Different MCs and Associated Mechanisms
17.4.2 Biodegradation of Selected MCs in AD Processes
17.4.2.1 MPs
17.4.2.2 NMs/NPs
17.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
17.6 Conclusions
18 Bio-Electrochemical Systems for Micropollutant Removal
18.1 The Concept of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.2 Bio-Electrochemical Systems: Materials and Configurations
18.2.1 Electrodes
18.2.2 Separators
18.3 Different Types of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell
18.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
18.3.3 Microbial Desalination Cell
18.4 Performance Assessment of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5 Pollutant Removal in Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5.1 Treatment of Different Wastewaters in Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5.2 Micropollutant Remediation
18.6 Scale-Up of BES
18.7 Challenges and Future Outlook
18.8 Summary
19 Hybrid Treatment Solutions for Removal of Micropollutant From Wastewaters
19.1 Background of Hybrid Treatment Processes
19.2 Types of Hybrid Processes for Microconstituents Removal
19.2.1 Constructed Wetlands
19.2.1.1 Applications
19.2.1.2 Constructed Wetland Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell
19.2.2 Combined Biological and Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.1 Activated Sludge Process Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.2.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.2.3 Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.4 Bio-Electro Fenton-Based Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.5 Photo-Electrocatalyst-Based Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.3 Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.1 Granular Sludge Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.2 Advanced Oxidation Process Coupled Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.3 Membrane Bioreactor Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell
19.2.4 Electrocoagulation
19.3 Comparative Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Systems for Microconstituents Removal
19.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
Part V Aspects of Sustainability and Environmental Management
20 Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Management and Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents
20.3 Regulations on Microconstituents
20.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
20.3.2 Microplastics
20.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Persistent Bioaccumulated Toxics (PBTs)
20.3.4 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)
20.4 Concluding Remarks
21 Laboratory to Field Application of Technologies for Effective Removal of Microconstituents From Wastewaters
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Microconstituent Origin and Type
21.1.2 Refractory Nature and Corresponding Degradation Barriers of Microconstituents
21.2 Case Studies for Lab to Field Applications
21.2.1 Conventional Treatment Methods
21.2.2 Hybrid Treatment Methods
21.2.2.1 Hybrid Biochemical Processes
21.2.2.2 Hybrid Advanced Oxidation Processes
21.3 Future Outlook
21.4 Conclusions
22 Sustainability Outlook: Green Design, Consumption, and Innovative Business Model
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Sustainable/Green Supply Chain
22.2.1 Collaboration
22.2.2 System Improvements
22.2.3 Supplier Evaluations
22.2.4 Performance and Uncertainty
22.3 Environmental Sustainability: Innovative Design and Manufacturing
22.3.1 Design Improvements
22.3.1.1 Disassembly and Recyclability
22.3.1.2 Modularity Design
22.3.1.3 Life-Cycle Design
22.3.2 Green Manufacturing
22.3.2.1 Green Manufacturing Process and System Development
22.3.2.2 Recycling Technology
22.3.2.3 Hazard Material Control
22.3.2.4 Remanufacturing and Inventory Model
22.3.3 Summary of Environmental Sustainability
22.4 Economical Sustainability: Innovation Business Model
22.4.1 Business Model and Performance
22.4.2 Summary of Economic Sustainability
22.5 Social Sustainability
22.5.1 Corporate Social Responsibility
22.5.2 Sustainable Consumption
22.5.3 Brief Summary of Social Sustainability
22.6 Conclusions and Future Research Development
22.6.1 Future Research Development
22.6.2 Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Life
22.6.3 Conclusions
List of Abbreviations
Index
EULA