An increasing population has put tremendous pressure on agricultural productivity to fulfill the demands of human consumption. Numerous agricultural activities and techniques have been developed to raise annual crop production globally. While agriculture has succeeded in enhancing the yearly crop productivity, this achievement is at the cost of environmental degradation by applying synthetic persistent substances, such as industrial fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc. Chemical fertilizers are nearly as destructive as they are productive, causing monocultures and consequences associated with elimination of diversity, nutrient pollution as evidenced by algae blooms, eutrophication, water quality issues, lower oxygen levels and dangers to fish stocks. Therefore, the scientific approach to maintain sustainable fertility in soil and plants is to switch over to biofertilisers.
Biofertilisers are compounds of organic matter that are applied to crops for growth and health. Their constituent micro-organisms interact in an ecofriendly manner with the soil, root and seeds of plants, promoting the growth of micro-flora that enhances soil fertility. They are known to play a number of vital roles in soil fertility, crop productivity and production in agriculture. Application of biofertilisers results in increased mineral and water uptake, root development, vegetative growth and nitrogen fixation. They liberate growth promoting substances and vitamins and help to maintain soil fertility. They act as antagonists and play a pivotal role in neutralising the soil borne plant pathogens, thereby assisting in the bio-control of diseases. Application of biofertilisers in lieu of synthetic fertilizers could be the promising technique to raise agricultural productivity without degrading the environmental quality.
The present book focuses on the latest research approaches and updates from the microbiota ecosystem and their applications in agriculture industry. It also highlights the great potential and possible future of action of microbiota in the development of sustainable agricultural systems.
Author(s): Khalid Rehman Hakeem, Gowhar Hamid Dar, Mohammad Aneesul Mehmood, Rouf Ahmad Bhat
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 297
City: Cham
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Book
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Chemical Fertilizers, Formulation, and Their Influence on Soil Health
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Chemical Fertilizers and Their Formulations
1.4 Chemical Fertilizer Effect on Soil Parameters
1.4.1 Soil Chemical Parameters
1.4.2 Physical Parameters
1.4.3 Biological Parameters
References
Chapter 2: Organic Agriculture: Principles, Current Status, and Significance
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Concept and Principles
2.2 Current Status
2.3 Organic Agriculture: A Sustainable Agriculture
2.4 Organic Nutrition and Crop Productivity/Yield and Quality Parameters
2.5 Organic Agriculture and Environmental Sustainability
2.5.1 Organic Nutrition and Soil Fertility
2.5.2 Organic Fertilizers and Soil Biological Properties
2.5.3 Organic Agriculture and Climate Change and Global Warming
2.5.4 Organic Agriculture and Nitrate Leaching and Carbon Sequestration
2.6 Organic Farming and Human Health Implications
2.7 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Chapter 3: Responses of Soil Properties to Organic Amendments
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Physical Properties
3.3 Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Chemical Properties
3.4 Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Biological Properties
3.5 Impediments of Organic Farming
3.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Vermicomposting: Sustainable Tool for Agriculture Environs
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Solid Waste Minimization Using Vermicomposting
4.3 Waste Water of Aquatic Animals Is Recycled in Zoo
4.4 Worms and Their Biological Features
4.5 Temperature, PH in Vermiprocessing Technique
4.6 Vermicomposting for Agriculture
4.7 Soil Health vs Organic Fertilizers
4.8 Temperature, PH in Vermiprocessing Technique
4.9 Endurable Use of Vermicomposting in Zoo
4.10 Use of Earthworms in Aquaculture and Poultry Farming
4.11 Formation of Vermiwash and Its Uses
4.12 Soil Health vs Organic Fertilizers
4.13 Vermicomposting for Agriculture
4.14 Starving Worms Are Future Biodegrading Agents
4.15 Summary/Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 5: Application and Viability of Macrophytes as Green Manure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Macrophytes: Brief Description of Their General Aspects
5.3 Biotechnological Applications of Macrophytes
5.3.1 Macrophytes as Organic Biofertilizers or Green Manure
5.3.2 Macrophyte Applications as Biofertilizers or Green Manure in Agriculture and Horticulture
5.3.3 Macrophytes as Phytoremediators
5.3.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
Chapter 6: Role of Microorganisms as Biofertilizers
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mode of Action of Microorganisms as Biofertilizers
6.2.1 Direct Methods
6.2.1.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
6.2.1.2 Phosphate, Potassium, and Zinc Solubilization
6.2.1.3 Production of Siderophore
6.2.1.4 Phytohormone Production
6.2.1.5 Production of Enzymes
6.2.2 Indirect Methods
6.2.2.1 Antibiotic Synthesis
6.2.2.2 Hydrogen Cyanide Production
6.2.2.3 Induced Systemic Resistance
6.2.2.4 Production of Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes
6.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Nano-agriculture: A Novel Approach in Agriculture
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What Is Nanotechnology?
7.3 Overview of Nanotechnology Applications in Agriculture
7.4 Nanoscale Carriers
7.5 Microfabricated Xylem Vessels
7.6 Nanolignocellulosic Materials
7.7 Clay Nanotubes
7.8 Photocatalysis
7.9 Bioremediation of Resistant Pesticides
7.10 Disinfectants
7.11 Wastewater Treatment
7.12 Nanobarcode Technology
7.12.1 Biological Applications of Nanobarcodes
7.12.2 Nonbiological Applications of Nanobarcodes
7.13 Quantum Dots (QDs) for Staining Bacteria
7.14 Biosensors
7.15 Gold Nanoparticles
7.16 Smart Dust
7.17 ZigBee Mesh Networking Standard
7.18 Nanotechnologies in Animal Production and Healthcare
7.19 Improving Feeding Efficiency and Nutrition
7.20 Zoonotic Diseases
7.21 Animal Reproduction and Fertility
7.22 Animal Product Quality, Value, and Safety
7.23 Nanotechnology and Animal Waste Management
7.24 Nanotechnologies for Water Quality and Availability
7.25 Nanooligodynamic Metallic Particles
7.26 Photocatalysis
7.27 Desalination
7.28 Removal of Heavy Metals
7.29 Wireless Nanosensors
7.30 Detection of Pollutants and Impurities
7.31 Nanotechnology and Shelf Life of Agricultural and Food Products
7.32 Green Nanotechnology
7.33 The Role of Good Governance and Policies for Effective Nanotechnology Development
7.34 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
7.35 Overview of Nanotechnology Research Activities in the Agricultural Sector
7.35.1 Commercial Applications of Nanotechnology in the Agricultural Sector
7.35.2 Nanotechnology Risk Assessment and Regulation in the EU and Worldwide
7.35.3 Socioeconomic Issues of Agricultural Nanotechnology
7.36 Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
References
Chapter 8: Biofertilizers: Sustainable Approach for Growing Population Needs
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
8.3 Rhizobial Inoculation Enhances Plant Growth and Development
8.3.1 Plant Growth Promotion by Endophytes: Proposed Mechanism
8.3.2 Nitrogen Accumulation
8.3.3 Biofertilizer Relevance and Plant Tolerance to Environmental Stress
8.3.4 Mechanism of Action of Various Biofertilizers
8.3.5 Phosphate-Solubilizing Microorganisms
8.3.6 Phosphate-Solubilizing Microorganisms
8.3.7 Mechanism of Phosphate Solubilization
8.3.8 Production of Phosphate-Solubilizing Microorganism Inoculants
8.3.9 Importance of Biofertilizers in Conservation Agriculture
8.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Role of Recombinant DNA Technology in Biofertilizer Production
9.1 Introduction to Biotechnology
9.1.1 Subfields of Biotechnology
9.1.2 Green Biotechnology
9.1.3 White Biotechnology
9.1.4 Red Biotechnology
9.2 Recombinant DNA Technology
9.3 Construction of the Recombinant DNA Molecule
9.4 Cloning of DNA by Recombinant DNA Technology
9.5 Role of Restriction Enzymes in the Creation of Recombinant DNA Molecule
9.6 Inserting DNA Fragments into Vectors
9.7 Role of Recombinant DNA Technology in Agriculture
9.7.1 Soil Fertility
9.8 Biofertilizers
9.8.1 Types of Biofertilizers
9.8.1.1 Symbiotic Biofertilizers
9.8.1.2 Rhizobia
9.8.1.3 Blue Green Algae
9.8.1.4 Mycorrhiza
9.8.1.5 Free-Living or Non-symbiotic Biofertilizers
9.9 Phytohormone-Mediated Mechanism of Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms/Bacteria (PGPB)
9.9.1 Auxins
9.9.2 Cytokinins
9.9.3 Ethylene
9.9.4 Nitric Oxide
9.9.5 Helper Bacteria
9.10 Genetically Modified Microbes as Biofertilizers
9.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Root-Associated Ectomycorrhizal Mycobionts as Forest Biofertilizers: Standardized Molecular Methods for Characterization of Ectomycorrhizal Wood Wide Web
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Root-Associated Ectomycorrhizal Fungi as Forest Biofertilizers
10.3 Standardized Molecular Methods for Characterization of Ectomycorrhizal Wood Wide Web
10.3.1 Sampling of ECM Root Tips
10.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscope and Compound Microscope Study of Ectomycorrhizal Roots
10.3.3 Molecular Methods for Characterization of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
10.3.3.1 Protocol for ECM Root Tip DNA Extraction
10.3.3.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Protocol
10.3.3.3 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
10.3.3.4 Purification of PCR Products
10.3.3.5 Sequence Analysis and Identification of ECM Species
10.4 Findings and Inferences
10.4.1 Morpho-Anatomical Characteristics of ECM Roots
10.4.2 Molecular Characterization of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
10.4.2.1 Analysis of ECM Root Tip Genomic DNA
10.4.2.2 PCR Amplification Analysis
10.4.2.3 Role of Dimethyl Sulphoxide (DMSO)
10.4.2.4 Role of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)
10.4.2.5 Why DNA Template Dilutions?
10.4.2.6 Sequence Analysis and Identification of ECM Species
10.4.2.7 Advanced Techniques for the Study of Ectomycorrhizal Microbiome
10.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) as Biofertilizers and Biopesticides
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria as Biofertilizers
11.2.1 Increased Availability or Nutrient Solubilizing Ability in the Rhizosphere
11.2.2 Biosynthesis of Plant Growth-Regulating Substances (PGRS)
11.2.3 Importance and Regulation of Ethylene Level in Plant
11.2.4 Siderophore Biosynthesis
11.2.5 Biosynthesis of Vitamins
11.2.6 Production of Antibiotics
11.2.7 Cyanide Biosynthesis
11.2.8 Improvement of Plant Resistance Against Abiotic Stresses
11.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGRP) as a Biopesticides
11.4 EPA Categorization of Biopesticides
11.4.1 Microbial Biopesticides
11.4.2 Plant Biopesticides
11.4.3 Biochemical Biopesticides
11.5 Mode of Action of PGPR as Biopesticides
11.6 Viability and Shelf Life of PGPR
11.7 Benefits of PGPR
11.8 Limitations
11.9 Future Perspectives
11.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Halotolerant Microorganism Reclamation Industry for Salt-Dominant Soils
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sensitivity of Crops to Salt Level
12.3 Diversity of Halophilic Soil Microbes
12.4 Application of Bacillus Species for Improving Plant Health in Salt-Affected Soils
12.5 Screening of PGPR for Saline Tolerance
12.6 Role of PGPR in Plant Stress Mitigation
12.7 Remediation of Sodic Soils to Enhance Agricultural Yield
12.8 Effect of Use of Halophilic Bacterial Strains on Soil Properties
12.9 Influence on Plant Growth by Halotolerant and Halophilic Microbes
12.10 Effect of Inoculation of Halophilic Bacterial Strains on Wheat
12.11 Bioengineering as a Tool Against Soil Salinity
12.12 AM Fungi in Saline Environments (Effects on Plant Growth and Development)
12.13 The Complex Functioning of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Fungi in Improving Salt Stress in Plants
12.14 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Allelopathic Bacteria as an Alternate Weedicide: Progress and Future Standpoints
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chemical Herbicides and Their Impacts on the Environment
13.3 Allelopathic Bacteria as Alternate of Chemical Herbicides
13.4 Mechanical Methods
13.4.1 Weed Pulling
13.4.2 Mechanical Mowing
13.4.3 Crop Residues and Polythene Mulching
13.4.4 Tillage Practices
13.4.5 Soil Solarization
13.4.6 Setting Fire in the Fields
13.4.7 Flooding the Fields
13.5 Limitation of Mechanical Methods
13.6 Biological Method
13.6.1 Insects as a Bio-control Agent
13.6.2 Fungi as a Bio-control Agent
13.7 Bacteria as Alternate to Control Weed
13.7.1 Allelopathic Bacteria
13.7.2 Cyanogenesis
13.8 Mechanism of Bacterial Phytotoxins
13.8.1 Indole Acetic Acid Production
13.8.2 Amino-Levulinic Acid Production
13.8.3 Hydrogen Cyanide Production
13.8.4 Phytotoxin Production
13.8.5 Production of Antibiotics
13.9 Bioherbicides Constraints
13.10 Upcoming Prospects
References
Chapter 14: Azotobacter as Biofertilizer for Sustainable Soil and Plant Health Under Saline Environmental Conditions
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biological Characteristics of Azotobacter
14.2.1 Taxonomic Classification
14.2.2 Morphology
14.2.3 Distribution
14.3 Nitrogen Fixation by Azotobacter
14.3.1 Mechanism of Nitrogen Fixation
14.3.2 Nitrogen-Fixing Capacity of Azotobacter
14.4 The Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Progress of Azotobacter
14.4.1 The Influence of pH on the Growth and Nitrogen Fixation Capacity of Azotobacter
14.4.2 The Effect of Temperature on Azotobacter Nitrogen Fixation
14.4.3 The Effect of O2 Level on Nitrogen Fixation Capacity of Azotobacter
14.4.4 Oxygen Protection in Free Living Azotobacter
14.4.5 The Effect of Inorganic Salts on Nitrogen Fixation of Azotobacter
14.5 Use of Azotobacter for Crop Improvement
14.5.1 Azotobacter as a Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
14.5.2 Effect of Azotobacter on Seed Germination
14.5.3 The Effect of Azotobacter on Growth and Yield of Different Crops
14.6 The Use of Azotobacter and Phosphate Solubilizer Inoculant in Improving Compost Quality
14.7 Degradation of Pesticides by Azotobacter
14.8 Advantages and Limitations of Using Azotobacter as Biofertilizer
14.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Role of Microbiota in Composting
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Methods of Composting
15.3 Microbiota in Composting
15.3.1 Bacteria
15.3.2 Actinomycetes
15.3.3 Fungi
15.3.4 Higher Animals
15.4 Factors that Effect Composting
15.4.1 Moisture Content
15.4.2 Temperature
15.4.3 Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio
15.4.4 Amount of Lignin
15.4.5 Polyphenols
15.4.6 Oxygen (Aeration)
15.5 Physical Characteristics
15.5.1 Porosity
15.5.2 Texture
15.5.3 Structure
15.6 The Process of Composting
15.6.1 Lignin
15.6.2 Cellulose
15.6.3 Hemicelluloses
15.6.4 Murein
15.6.5 Chitin
15.7 Chemical Transformation
15.8 Respiration
15.9 Fermentation
15.10 Applications of Compost
15.10.1 Land Application
15.11 Marketing Considerations
15.12 Health Risks of Composting Operations
15.12.1 Odour Generation
15.12.2 Pathogens
15.12.3 Bioaerosols
15.13 Waste Management in the South Asia Region
15.14 Conclusion
References
Index
