Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis: Implications on Health

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Gut-Brain Axis and Human Health
1: Gut Microbes: Influencers of Human Brain
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Gut Microbiota
1.2.1 Alterations and Factors Impacting the Gut Microbiota
1.2.2 The Ways of Harnessing Human Microbiota
1.2.2.1 Mechanism of Sample Study for Animal Experiments
1.2.2.2 Faecal Transplantation
1.2.2.3 Dietary Intervention
1.2.3 Functional Characteristics of Gut Microbiota
1.3 The Functional Relation in Intestinal Microbiota and Brain Using Animal Models
1.4 Brain Development and Microbiota
1.4.1 Types of Barriers
1.4.2 Barriers in the Intestine
1.4.3 Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
1.5 Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis
1.5.1 Diagnostic Evidences
1.6 Effect of Prebiotics and Probiotics on the BGM (Brain-Gut-Microbiota)
1.7 Gut Microbiota Interaction and the Immune System Response
1.8 Role of BGM in Diseases
1.8.1 Gastrointestinal Disorders
1.8.2 Food Addiction
1.8.3 Psychiatric Diseases Associated with Brain
1.8.3.1 Depression and Anxiety
1.8.3.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder
1.8.4 Neurological Disorders
1.8.4.1 Parkinson´s Disease
1.8.4.2 Brain Stroke and Injury
1.8.4.3 Alzheimer´s Disease
1.8.4.4 Epilepsy
References
2: Current Insights on the Modulation of Gut Microbiome and Its Effect on Human Health
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Probiotics in the Treatment of Gut Diseases
2.2.1 Obesity
2.2.2 Infectious Diarrhea
2.2.3 Type 2 Diabetes
2.2.4 Lactose Intolerance
2.2.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
2.2.6 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
2.2.7 Colon Cancer
2.2.8 Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
2.2.9 Osteoarthritis
2.2.10 Celiac Disease
2.3 Conclusion
References
3: Trust Your Gut: The Human Gut Microbiome in Health and Disease
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Nature and Nurture of Gut Microbiome
3.3 Origin, Composition, Metabolism, and Development of Gut Microbiome
3.4 Features and High-Throughput Diversity of the Gastrointestinal Tract Microbiota
3.5 The Early Years of Life Influenced by Our Intestinal Microbiome
3.5.1 Gut Microbiota Before Birth
3.5.2 Development of Microbiome During Labor
3.5.3 Development of the Microbiota After Birth
3.5.4 Functional Maturation of the Gut Microbiome
3.6 The Human Gut Bifidobacteria
3.6.1 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics
3.7 Function of Microbiota in Human Health
3.7.1 Function of Microbiota in Human Breast Milk
3.7.2 Microbial Diversity for Human Health
3.7.3 Function of Microbiome in Immune System Development, Host Protection, and Metabolism Homeostasis
3.7.3.1 Immunosenescence and Microbiota
3.7.4 Obesity Alters Gut Microbial Ecology
3.7.4.1 Gut Microbiome and Obesity
3.7.5 What Is Gut-Brain Axis and Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis?
3.7.5.1 Stroke Development and Microbiota Gut-Brain Axis
References
4: Virome and Microbiome Interaction and Their Implication in the Human Gut Health
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Emerging View of the Human Virome
4.1.2 Human Gut Microbiota Composition
4.2 Human Gut Virome Composition: Main Players
4.2.1 Eukaryotic Viruses
4.2.2 Bacteriophages
4.3 Virome Functions Within the Human Gut Microbiome
4.4 Tools for Human Virome Identification
4.4.1 Sampling
4.4.2 Genome Purification and Concentration
4.4.2.1 Tangential Flow Filtration (TFF)
4.4.2.2 Cesium Chloride (CsCl) Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation
4.4.2.3 Precipitation with Polyethylene Glycol
4.4.2.4 Chloroform and Nuclease Treatment
4.4.2.5 Flow-Cytometry-Based Methods
4.4.3 Extraction and Amplification of VLP-Derived DNA
4.4.3.1 Multiple Displacement Amplification (MDA)
4.4.3.2 Linker Amplified Shotgun Library (LASL)
4.4.3.3 Random Amplified Shotgun Library (RASL)
4.4.3.4 Adaptase-Linker Amplification (A-LA)
4.4.3.5 Virus Discovery cDNA-AFLP (VIDISCA) Technique
4.4.3.6 Fully Automated Virus Extraction
4.4.4 Sequencing Strategies
4.4.4.1 Pyrosequencing
4.4.4.2 Illumina Sequencing
4.4.5 Quality Control
4.4.5.1 Viral Quantification
Epifluorescence Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
4.4.5.2 Prophage Identification Applications
4.4.6 Computational Approaches for Characterizing Sequenced Viromes
4.4.6.1 Similarity-Dependent or Reference-Based Approach
4.4.6.2 Similarity-Independent or De Novo Approaches
4.5 Virome-Associated Dysbiosis
4.5.1 Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)
4.5.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
4.5.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
4.5.4 Cancer
4.6 Communication Between Enteric Virome and Human Gut Probiotics: Implication on Gut Health
4.6.1 Probiotics and Bacteriophages
4.6.2 Strategies of Interactions Between Prokaryotes and Viruses in the Gut
4.6.3 Role of Lytic Phages in the Gut
4.6.4 Horizontal Gene Transfer Between Bacteriophages and Bacteria
4.6.5 Pathogenic Interactions
4.6.6 Gaps in Knowledge
4.7 Human Virome Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions
4.7.1 Importance of the Enteric Virome in Fecal Microbial Transplantation
4.7.2 Phage Therapy
4.7.3 Enteric Virome Associated with Gastrointestinal Diseases
4.7.3.1 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
4.7.3.2 Celiac Disease Autoimmunity (CDA)
4.7.3.3 Enteric Virome Implication in Obesity and Diabetes
4.7.3.4 Enteric Virome Implication in Parkinson´s Disease
4.7.4 Eukaryotic Viruses and Their Implications in Gastrointestinal Diseases
4.7.5 Challenges and Future Directions
References
5: Interactions of Microbiome for Gut-Brain Axis Health
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Profile of Gut Microbiota
5.3 Signaling Mechanism Associated behind MGBA
5.4 Role of Gut Microbiota in the Development of Brain Behavior
5.5 Control of Microbiota on the Brain Through Nervous Pathway
5.6 Controlling of the Immune System by Gut-Microbiome
5.6.1 Innate Immunity
5.6.2 Adaptive Immunity
5.7 Brain Disorder and Altered Microbiota
5.8 Therapeutic Target of Gut-Brain Axis
5.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
6: Diet-Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis and IgE-Mediated Food Allergy
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Food Allergy
6.3 Gut Microbiome and Allergy
6.4 Diet-Gut Microbiota Interaction and Allergy
6.5 Modulation of Gut Microbiota as a Preventive Measure
6.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
7: Gut Microbiome Composition as the Key Factor for Immunomodulation in the Host
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Interdependence of Gut Microbiota and Host Immune Functions
7.2.1 Gut Microbiota-Dependent Immune System Development and Maturation
7.2.2 Role of the Immune System in Shaping Gut Microbiota Complexity
7.3 Microbiota Released Metabolite and Immune System Modulation
7.4 Mechanistic View of Host Innate Immune System and Microbiota Interaction
7.5 Consequences of Mismatched Interaction Between Gut Microbiota and Immune Cells
7.6 Combating Mismatched Gut Microbiota and Immune System Interactions
7.7 Future Perspectives
References
8: Gut-Brain Axis: Role of the Gut Microbiome on Human Health
8.1 Introduction: Gut Microbiome and Brain Broadcast
8.1.1 Composition and Dynamics of Healthy Adult Microbiota
8.1.2 Formation of Gut Microbiota During the Early Stages of Life
8.1.3 What Consists Gut Microbiota?
8.1.4 Gut-Brain Axis
8.1.5 How Gut Microbiota Communicates with the Brain?
8.1.5.1 Neuroanatomical Pathway
8.1.5.2 Neuroendocrine-HPA Axis
8.1.5.3 Immunological Pathway
8.1.5.4 Neurotransmitters Regulating Gut-Brain Axis
8.2 Gut-Microbiome-Brain Implications on Physical Health
8.2.1 Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
8.2.2 Metabolic Diseases
8.2.3 Reproductive Health
8.3 Gut-Microbiome-Brain Implications on Mental Health
8.3.1 Stress/Depression
8.3.2 Autism
8.3.3 Parkinson´s Disease
8.3.4 Alzheimer´s Disease
8.4 Conclusion
References
Part II: Modulation of Gut Brain Axis Through Pro- and prebiotics
9: Functional Role of Prebiotic Supplement in Brain Signalling
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Probiotics
9.3 Prebiotics
9.4 Prebiotics Role in Supporting Gut Microbial Growth
9.5 Brain Signalling (Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis)
9.5.1 Neural Pathway
9.5.2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
9.5.3 Tryptophan and 5-Hydroxytryptamine Metabolism
9.5.4 Immune System
9.5.5 Gut Hormonal Response
9.6 Factors Affecting the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
9.6.1 Role of Diet in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
9.6.2 Role of Age in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
9.6.3 Role of Sex in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
9.6.4 Role of Drugs in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
9.7 Abnormalities in Brain Signalling
9.8 Disease Occurring Due to Abnormalities in Brain Signalling
9.9 Clinical and Preclinical Findings Related to Psychiatric Changes
9.10 Prebiotics Role in Overcoming the Abnormal Psychiatric Changes
9.11 Prebiotic Supplement in Overcoming the Psychiatric Changes
9.12 Conclusion
References
10: Probiotic Mechanism to Modulate the Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Probiotics and GBA
10.3 Bidirectional Communications Within the GBA
10.3.1 Possible Mechanisms Through Which Probiotics Can Modulate the GBA
10.3.1.1 Neural Regulatory Interactions Between the Gut and the Brain
10.3.1.2 Immune-Facilitated Communication Between the Gut and the Brain
10.3.1.3 GBA Regulation by Neuroactive Compounds and Metabolites
10.3.1.4 Central Nervous System Regulates Gut Microbiota
10.4 Modulation of the GBA by Probiotics
10.4.1 In Vivo Studies
10.4.2 Clinical Studies
10.5 Conclusions
References
11: Gut-Brain Axis: Probiotic Interactions and Implications for Human Mental Health
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Gut Physiology
11.2.1 Neural Control of the Gut
11.3 Role of the Gut in the Immune System
11.4 Probiotics
11.5 Prebiotics
11.6 Disorders of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
11.6.1 Stress, Anxiety and Depression
11.6.2 Alzheimer´s Disease
11.6.3 Parkinson´s Disease
11.6.4 Multiple Sclerosis
11.6.5 Autism
11.6.6 Schizophrenia
11.6.7 Alcohol Dependence
11.6.8 Cognition/Behaviour
References
12: Probiotic: A Sustainable Approach Towards Healthy Food
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Characteristics of Probiotic Bacteria
12.2.1 Species of Probiotic Bacteria
12.2.1.1 Lactobacillus acidophilus
12.2.1.2 Lactobacillus rhamnosus
12.2.1.3 Leuconostoc mesenteroides
12.2.1.4 Weissella confusa
12.2.1.5 Bifidobacterium bifidum and breve
12.2.1.6 Streptococcus thermophilus and salivarius
12.2.1.7 Bacillus coagulans
12.2.1.8 Bacillus subtilis
12.3 Mode of Action of Probiotics
12.3.1 Mechanism of Action of Probiotics in the Human Gut
12.3.2 Stability and Sustainability of Probiotic Strains
12.3.3 Probiotic Foods
12.3.3.1 Yogurt
12.3.3.2 Cheese
12.3.3.3 Kefir
12.3.3.4 Kimchi
12.3.3.5 Miso Soup
12.3.3.6 Green Olives
12.3.4 Storage of Probiotic Bacterial Supplement
12.3.5 Health Benefits of Probiotics
12.3.5.1 Cure of Stomach Problems
12.3.5.2 Reduce Anxiety and Stress
12.3.5.3 Reduce the Risk of Breast Cancer
12.3.5.4 Reduce Bad Cholesterol
12.3.5.5 Reduce Allergy
References
13: Production and Biofunctionality of Milk-Derived Bioactive Peptides
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Bioactive Peptides
13.2.1 Production of Bioactive Peptides
13.2.1.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
13.2.1.2 Microbial Fermentation
13.3 Bioactive Peptides Obtained from Milk Proteins
13.4 Biofunctional Properties of Bioactive Peptides
13.4.1 Effect on Cardiovascular System
13.4.1.1 Antihypertensive Peptides
13.4.1.2 Antioxidative Peptides
13.4.1.3 Hypocholesterolemic Peptides
13.4.1.4 Antithrombotic Peptides
13.4.2 Effect on the Gastrointestinal System
13.4.2.1 Mineral Binding Peptides
13.4.2.2 Antidiabetic Peptides
13.4.2.3 Antiobesity Peptides
13.4.2.4 Antimicrobial Peptides
13.4.3 Effect on the Immune System
13.4.3.1 Immunomodulatory Peptides
13.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
14: Role of Probiotics in Allergic Diseases
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Probiotics
14.2.1 Characteristics of Probiotics
14.2.2 Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics in Allergic Disease
14.2.3 Role of Probiotic in Atopic Dermatitis
14.2.4 Role of Probiotic in Asthma
14.2.5 Role of Probiotic in Allergic Rhinitis
14.2.6 Role of Probiotic in Food Allergy
References
15: Probiotics Suppress the Depression: A Look at the Possible Mechanisms of Action
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Neurological Disorders and Gut-Brain Axis
15.3 Probiotics and Depression
15.4 Mechanisms of Probiotics´ Antidepressant Effect
15.4.1 Modulation of Inflammation
15.4.2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis and Neurotransmitter Signaling
15.5 Conclusion
References
16: Role of Probiotics in Diabetes Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Gut Microbiota
16.3 Diabetes and Probiotics
16.3.1 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
16.3.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
16.3.3 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM)
16.4 Mechanisms of Probiotics´ Action
16.4.1 Modulation of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress
16.4.2 Probiotics and Endocannabinoid (eCB) System
16.4.3 Appetite-Regulating Hormones and Eating Behavior
16.5 Conclusion
References
17: Role of Probiotics in Autism Spectrum Disorders
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Gut-Brain Axis
17.3 History of Autism and Causes
17.3.1 Neurodegenerative Disorders (NDDs)
17.3.2 Role of Microbes Present in Autistic Patients
17.3.3 Role of Probiotics in Overcoming the Disease
17.4 Conclusions
References
18: From Probiotics to Postbiotics: Key to Microbiome and Health
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Postbiotics: Definition and Concept
18.3 Sources of Postbiotics
18.4 Forms or Types of Postbiotics
18.5 Production Methods of Postbiotics
18.6 Applications/Benefactions of Postbiotics
18.6.1 Immune Modulation
18.6.2 Anticancer Properties
18.6.3 Luminal and Mucosal Effects
18.6.4 IBS/IBD and Other Conditions
18.6.5 Neural Diseases
18.6.6 Diabetes
18.6.7 Antimicrobial Potentials
18.6.8 Miscellaneous Applications
18.7 Future Prospects as Concluding Remarks
References
19: Effect of Probiotics on Gut Microbiota and Brain Interactions in the Context of Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental D...
19.1 Introduction
19.2 History of Probiotics
19.3 Gut-Brain Microbial Axis: Connection of the Gut and the Brain
19.4 Role of Microbiota in the Gut-Brain Microbial Axis
19.5 Gut Dysbiosis and Human Health
19.6 Psychobiotics and Their Role in Mental Health
19.7 Psychobiotics in Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
19.7.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
19.7.2 Parkinson´s Disease (PD)
19.7.3 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
19.7.4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
19.7.5 Tourette Syndrome (TS)
19.7.6 Insomnia
19.8 Conclusion
References
20: Impact of Probiotics in Modulation of Gut Microbiome
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Probiotic and Gut Microbiota
20.3 Modulation of the Intestinal Microbiota by the Use of Probiotics
20.4 How Probiotics Modulate the Intestinal Microbiota?
20.5 Modulation of Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis by Probiotics
20.6 Conclusions
References
21: Potential of Probiotics in Improving Gut Health
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Probiotics: Current Importance and Future
21.3 Gut Microbiota and Their Effect on Human Health
21.4 Probiotics as Nutritional Aid for Human
21.5 Probiotics in Constipation and Gastric Motility
21.6 Implications of Probiotics on the Maternal-Neonatal Interface: Gut Microbiota, Immunomodulation, and Autoimmunity
21.7 Probiotics for Animals´ Gut Health
21.8 Safety of Probiotics
21.9 Modulation of Brain Function via the Gut-Brain Axis
21.10 The Feature Ahead of Probiotics, Ecobiotics
References
22: Probiotic and Prebiotic Interactions and Their Role in Maintaining Host Immunity
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Probiotics
22.2.1 Sources of Probiotics
22.2.2 Health Benefits of Probiotics
22.3 Prebiotics
22.3.1 Health Benefits of Prebiotics
22.4 Types of Immune Cells in the Gut
22.4.1 Cells of Innate Immunity
22.4.2 Cells for Antigen Absorption
22.4.3 Cells of Adaptive Immunity
22.5 Effects of Synbiotics on the Gut Immune System
22.6 Immunomodulatory Properties of Probiotics and Prebiotics
22.7 Role of Synbiotics in Various Diseases
22.7.1 Cancer
22.7.2 Anti-allergic Effect
22.7.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
22.7.4 Cardiovascular Disease and Lipid Metabolism
22.7.5 Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
References