Microbial Strategies for Techno-economic Biofuel Production

Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Algal Biofuels
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Algal Species Involved in Biofuel Production
1.3 Types of Biofuels Produced from Microalgae
1.3.1 Biodiesel
1.3.2 Biobutanol
1.3.3 Biogasoline
1.3.4 Methane
1.3.5 Ethanol
1.4 Nutrients and Growth Inputs for Algal Growth
1.4.1 Bold´s Basal Medium (BBM)
1.4.2 Acidified Bold´s Basal Medium
1.4.3 BG11 (Blue-Green Medium)
1.4.4 Chu10 Medium
1.4.5 Wastewater as a Source of Nitrogen and Phosphate
1.4.6 Impact of Growth Conditions on Microalgal Biomass
1.5 Different Microalgae Cultivation Methods
1.5.1 Open System
1.5.2 Closed Systems or Indoor Photobioreactors (PBRs)
1.6 Concept of Biorefineries
1.6.1 Evaluation of the Biorefinery Processes
1.7 Advantage and Disadvantage of Biofuels
1.8 Policies Regarding Algal Biofuels Worldwide
1.8.1 Indian National Policy of Biofuel 2008
1.8.2 Biofuel Policies in the United States
1.8.3 Biofuel Policies in Canada
1.9 Companies Involved in Algal Biofuel Production
1.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Paper Mill Sludge as a Potential Feedstock for Microbial Ethanol Production
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bioethanol: A Sustainable Renewable Biofuel
2.3 Common Feedstocks Used for Bioethanol Production
2.3.1 Rice Straw
2.3.2 Sugarcane Bagasse
2.3.3 Sugarcane Tops
2.3.4 Waste Paper
2.3.5 Paper Mill Sludge
2.4 Pulp and Paper Mill Industry
2.5 Paper-Making Process
2.6 Preparation of Raw Materials and Processing
2.6.1 Pulping
2.6.2 Pulp Washing and Chemical Recovery
2.6.3 Bleaching
2.6.4 Paper Pressing and Paper Making
2.6.5 Paper Mill Sludge as a By-Product
2.7 Indian Scenario of Paper Mills
2.8 Paper Mill Sludge
2.8.1 Paper Mill Sludge Composition
2.8.2 Environmental Impacts of Paper Mill Sludge
2.8.3 Industrial Uses of Paper Mill Sludge
2.8.3.1 Brick Manufacture
2.8.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion
2.8.3.3 Cement Base
2.8.3.4 Soil Conditioner
2.8.3.5 Bioethanol
2.9 Paper Mill Sludge Resource for Bioethanol Production
2.10 Steps Involved in Bioethanol Production
2.11 Pre-treatment Techniques Employed in Paper Mill Sludge
2.11.1 Acid Pre-treatment
2.11.2 Alkaline Pre-treatment
2.11.3 Pulping-Based Pre-treatment
2.11.4 Ultrasound Pre-treatment
2.11.5 Solvent-Based Pre-treatment
2.12 Challenges Faced in Available Pre-treatment Techniques
2.12.1 Acid-Based Pre-treatment
2.12.2 Alkali-Based Pre-treatment
2.12.3 Solvent-Based Pre-treatment
2.13 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 3: Application of Hydrolytic Enzymes in Biorefinery and Its Future Prospects
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biomass Structure
3.3 Application of Hydrolytic Enzymes in Generation of Bioethanol from Biomass
3.3.1 Cellulase
3.3.1.1 Cellulases: Application in Biorefinery
3.3.2 Hemicellulases
3.3.2.1 Hemicellulases: Application in Biorefinery
3.3.3 Ligninolytic Enzymes
3.3.3.1 Ligninolytic Enzymes: Application in the Biorefinery
Biological Delignification
3.3.4 Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases (LPMOs)
3.3.4.1 LPMOs: Application in Biorefinery
3.3.5 Amylases
3.3.5.1 Amylases: Application in Biorefinery
3.3.6 Pectinases
3.3.7 Lipases
3.3.7.1 Lipases: Application in Biorefinery
3.3.8 Proteases
3.3.8.1 Proteases: Application in Biorefinery
3.4 Strategies Employed for Improving the Hydrolytic Enzyme Yield and Efficiency
3.4.1 Immobilization of Enzyme
3.4.2 Screening of New and Robust Isolates from Extreme Habitats
3.4.3 Genetic Engineering
3.4.4 Metagenomics Approach for the Identification of the Potential Hydrolytic Enzyme
3.5 Integrated Biorefineries: Future of Biomass-Based Biorefinery
3.6 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Cultivation of Microalgae: Effects of Nutrient Focus on Biofuels
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Microalgae
4.3 Components Present in Algae
4.4 Cultivation of Microalgae
4.5 Nutritional Requirements of Algae Growth
4.5.1 Carbon
4.5.2 Nitrogen
4.5.3 Phosphorus
4.5.4 Macro- and Micronutrients
4.5.5 Other Considerations
4.6 Bioreactors for Microalgae Cultivation
4.6.1 Closed Reactor Designing for Microalgae Cultivation
4.6.2 Classification of Photobioreactors (PBRs)
4.6.2.1 Light
4.6.2.2 Mixing
4.6.2.3 Water Consumption
4.6.2.4 CO2 Consumption
4.6.2.5 O2 Removal
4.6.2.6 Nutrient Supply
4.6.2.7 Temperature
4.6.2.8 pH
4.6.3 Other Considerations
4.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Microalgae as an Efficient Feedstock Biomass for Biofuel Production
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biofuels from Microalgae Biomass
5.3 Harvesting
5.3.1 Sedimentation
5.3.2 Centrifugation
5.3.3 Flocculation
5.3.4 Coagulation
5.3.5 Floatation
5.3.6 Filtration
5.3.7 Electrophoresis
5.3.8 Ultrasonication
5.4 Lipid Extraction
5.4.1 Lipid Extraction by a Mechanical Process
5.4.2 Lipid Extraction by Chemicals and Solvents
5.4.2.1 Acid-Mediated Solvent System
5.4.2.2 Supercritical CO2 Fluid Technology
5.4.2.3 Ionic Liquids
5.4.3 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction
5.4.4 Surfactant-Assisted Extraction
5.4.5 Osmotic Pressure
5.5 Transesterification
5.5.1 Supercritical Conditions
5.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Microalgae Potential Feedstock for the Production of Biohydrogen and Bioactive Compounds
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Hydrogen Production
6.2.1 Photofermentation
6.2.2 Dark Fermentation
6.2.3 Hybrid System Using Photosynthetic and Dark Fermentative Bacteria
6.3 The Key Enzymes Associated with Hydrogen Production by Photosynthetic Bacteria
6.4 Medium Constituents and Cultivation Environments for Photosynthetic Bacteria
6.5 Various Parameters Influencing the Biohydrogen Production
6.6 Photobioreactor Design for Hydrogen Production
6.6.1 Solar Energy Excited Optical Fiber Photobioreactors
6.6.2 Photobioreactors with Immobilized Cells
6.6.3 The Plate-Type Photobioreactors
6.6.4 The LED Photobioreactors
6.7 Biomass Pretreatments Influence the H2 Production
6.8 Other Environmental Factor Influence on H2 Production
6.8.1 Effect of Thermophilic Conditions
6.8.2 Effect of Batch, Sequencing Batch, and Semicontinuous Reactions
6.8.3 Presence of Methanogenic Microorganisms
6.9 Bioactive Compounds
6.9.1 Introduction
6.9.2 Various Bioactive Compounds
6.9.3 Peptides and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
6.9.4 Anti-inflammatory Agents from Microalgae
6.9.5 Antibacterials
6.9.6 Antiviral and Anticancer Activities
6.10 Microalgae Preservation
6.10.1 Preservation by Lower Temperature
6.10.2 Preservation by Spray Drying
6.10.3 Preservation by Freeze Drying
6.10.4 Microencapsulation of Algae
6.11 Economic Concerns to Circular Economy
6.11.1 Future Prospective in Microalgal Research for Biofuels
6.11.2 Future Prospects on Bioactive Compounds
6.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Algal Biofuels: An Economic and Effective Alternative of Fossil Fuels
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources of Algal Biomass
7.3 Micro- and Macroalgae
7.3.1 Microalgae
7.3.1.1 Chlorella
7.3.1.2 Botryococcus braunii
7.3.1.3 Pleurochrysis carterae
7.3.1.4 Dunaliella salina
7.3.2 Macroalgae
7.3.2.1 Gracilaria chilensis
7.3.2.2 Sargassum angustifolium
7.3.2.3 Sea Lettuce: Ulva lactuca
7.4 Nutritional Requirements for the Algal Biomass Production
7.5 Energy Requirements for Life Cycle of Algal Biofuels
7.5.1 Carbon
7.5.2 Nitrogen
7.5.3 Phosphorus
7.5.4 Other Nutrients
7.6 Algal Cultivation Strategies
7.6.1 Open Pond Photobioreactor
7.6.2 Raceway Pond System
7.6.3 Closed-Photobioreactor
7.6.4 Hybrid Cultivation System
7.7 Harvesting and Drying of Algal Biomass
7.8 Biofuel Conversion
7.9 Improvement of Algal Biofuels Using Biotechnological Strategies
7.10 Economic Aspects of Algal Biofuels
7.11 Challenges and Future Perspective
7.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Nanocatalysts to Improve the Production of Microbial Fuel Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nanomaterial Classification
8.3 Nanoparticle Synthesis Techniques
8.3.1 Classification of Biofuels
8.3.2 Another Classification of Biofuel
8.3.2.1 Solid Biofuel
8.3.2.2 Liquid Biofuels
8.3.2.3 Gas Biofuels
8.4 Biofuel Production Methods
8.4.1 Gasification
8.4.2 Pyrolysis
8.4.3 Liquefaction
8.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
8.4.5 Transesterification
8.4.6 Anaerobic Digestion
8.5 Nanocatalysts in Biofuel Production
8.6 Nanoparticles in Biomass Pre-treatment
8.7 Use of Nanoparticles in the Production and Stability of Cellulase
8.8 Nanocatalyst for Biomass Gasification
8.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Microbial System: An Emerging Application in the Bioenergy Production
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of Biofuels
9.2.1 First-Generation Biofuels
9.2.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
9.2.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
9.2.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels
9.3 Sources of Biofuel Production
9.3.1 Agricultural Waste
9.3.2 Microalgae Biomass
9.4 Approaches for Microbial Strain Improvement
9.5 Metagenomic Approach for the Isolation and Characterization of Microorganisms
9.5.1 Sample Collection and Isolation of Genomic DNAs
9.5.2 Host Selection and Vector Construction
9.5.3 Metagenomic Library Screening
9.5.4 DNA Sequencing for Metagenomic Sample
9.6 Possibilities of Bioenergy Production
9.6.1 Electricity Generation
9.6.2 Biogas Generation
9.6.3 Bioethanol Generation
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: An Introduction of Metagenomics and Its Application in Microbial Fuel Production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification of Biofuel
10.2.1 First-Generation Biofuels
10.2.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
10.2.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
10.2.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuel: The Latest Biofuel Technology
10.3 Production of Biofuel
10.3.1 Biofuel Production Process for the First-Generation Biofuels
10.3.1.1 Transesterification
10.3.1.2 Homogeneous Catalysis
10.3.1.3 Heterogeneous Catalysis
10.3.1.4 Ethanol Conversion Process
10.3.1.5 Fermentation Process
10.3.1.6 Anaerobic Digestion of Biomass
10.3.2 Biomass Conversion Process for Second-, Third-, and Fourth-Generation Biofuels
10.3.2.1 Physical Conversion
10.3.2.2 Thermo-Chemical Degradation of Biomass
10.3.2.3 Chemical Conversion
Chemical Hydrolysis
Solvent Extraction Method
Supercritical Water Conversion (SWC) of Biomass
10.3.3 Algae Biodiesel
10.3.4 Biohydrogen and Biogas
10.4 Metagenomic Methods for the Identification and Characterization of Gene Encoding Novel Enzymes for Biofuel Production
10.4.1 Sample Processing and Isolation of DNAs
10.4.2 Selection of Host, Organisms, and Vectors Construction
10.4.3 Metagenomic Library Screening
10.4.3.1 Function-Based Screening
10.4.3.2 Sequence-Based Screening
10.4.3.3 SIGEX Screening
10.4.4 DNA Sequencing for Metagenomic Sample
10.4.4.1 Second-Generation Sequencing
10.4.4.2 454 Sequencing Platform
10.4.4.3 Illumina Genome Analyzers
10.4.4.4 Ion Torrent
10.4.4.5 Applied Biosystem
10.4.4.6 Third-Generation Sequencing
10.4.4.7 Single-Molecule Real-Time (SMRT) Sequencing
10.4.4.8 Oxford Nanopore Sequencing Technologies
10.4.5 Bioinformatics Tools Applicable in the Analysis of Metagenomic Sequencing Data
10.5 Application of Metagenomics for Biofuel Production
10.5.1 Application of Metagenomic Enzymes for Biofuel
10.6 Conclusion
References