Microbial Products: Applications and Translational Trends

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Contributors
About the Editors
Part I: Environment
Chapter 1: Microbial Products: Applications in the Field of Biotechnology and Bioremediation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Role of Microbes in Biodegradation and Bioremediation
1.3 Environmental Biotechnology
1.4 Biological Activities of Natural Products and Biologics
1.4.1 Antibiotics
1.4.2 Antifungal Agents
1.4.3 Anticancer Agents
1.4.4 Immunosuppressive Agent
1.4.5 Anti-Inflammatory Agents
1.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 2: Microbial Proteases: A Significant Tool for Industrial Applications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Categories of Proteases
2.2.1 Reaction Type
2.2.2 Source
2.2.2.1 Animal Proteases
2.2.2.2 Plant Proteases
2.2.2.3 Microbial Proteases
2.3 Classification of Microbial Proteases
2.4 Source of Microbial Proteases
2.4.1 Bacterial Proteases
2.4.2 Fungal Proteases
2.4.3 Viral Proteases
2.5 Industrial Applications of Microbial Proteases
2.5.1 Food Industry
2.5.2 Waste Management
2.5.3 Leather Industry
2.5.4 Detergent Industry
2.5.5 Photographic Industry
2.5.6 Chemical Industry
2.5.7 Silk Degumming
2.5.8 Pharmaceuticals and the Medical Field
2.5.9 Silver Recovery
2.5.10 Other Uses
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Microbial Melanin: Role, Biosynthesis, and Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Melanin
3.3 Role of Melanin in Microbes
3.3.1 Role of Melanin in Bacteria as a Virulence Factor
3.3.2 Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation
3.3.3 Virulence Mechanism in Melanotic Parasitic Fungi
3.3.4 Role of Melanin in Nematophagous Activity in Fungi
3.4 Biosynthesis Pathways of Melanin in Microbes
3.4.1 DHN Pathways
3.4.2 DOPA-Pathway
3.4.3 Enzymes in Melanin Synthesis Pathways
3.4.3.1 Polyketide Synthase (PKS)
3.4.3.2 Tyrosinase (EC 1.14.18.1, monophenol, o-diphenol: oxygen oxidoreductase)
3.4.3.3 Laccase (EC 1.10.3.2)
3.5 Various Studies on Melanin Production from Microorganisms
3.6 Applications of Melanin
3.7 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 4: Cyanobacteria as Natural Biofactories
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Role of Cyanobacteria in Biofuel Production
4.2.1 Alcohols: Ethanol and Isobutanol
4.2.2 Biodiesel
4.2.3 Biomethane
4.2.4 Biohydrogen
4.3 Cyanobacteria as a Source of Natural Sunscreens and Its Applications in Cosmetics
4.4 Food and Other Dietary Supplements
4.5 The Role of Cyanobacteria in Bioplastics Production
4.6 Cyanobacteria-Mediated Bioremediation
4.7 Cyanobacteria in the Biomedical Field
4.7.1 Antivirals
4.7.1.1 Role of Cyanobacteria in Treating SARS and COVID-19
4.7.2 Anticancer
4.7.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity
4.7.4 Antiparasitic Agents
4.7.5 Protease Inhibition and Immunomodulatory Activity of Cyanobacteria
4.8 Cyanobacteria as Biofactories for Nanoparticle Synthesis
4.9 Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizers
4.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 5: Microbial Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoate from Biological Waste
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Metabolism of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
5.3 Fermentation
5.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production Using Biowastes
5.5 Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 6: Exopolysaccharides for Heavy Metal Remediation: A Review of Current Trends and Future Prospects
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biosynthesis of Bacterial EPS
6.2.1 Extracellular Synthesis of EP
6.2.2 Intracellular Synthesis of EPS
6.3 Metal Binding to EPS
6.4 Application of EPS for Heavy Metal Remediation
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Biosurfactants: A Greener Alternative for a Sustainable Future
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Properties of Biosurfactants
7.2.1 Surface and Interface Activity
7.2.2 Temperature and pH Tolerance
7.2.3 Biodegradability
7.2.4 Low Toxicity
7.2.5 Emulsion Framing and Emulsion Breaking
7.2.6 Anti-adhesive Agents
7.3 Types of Biosurfactants
7.3.1 Glycolipids
7.3.2 Rhamnolipids
7.3.3 Sophorolipids
7.3.4 Trehalolipids
7.3.5 Surfactin
7.3.6 Lichenysin
7.3.7 Fatty Acids, Phospholipids and Neutral Lipids
7.3.8 Bio-emulsifiers
7.3.9 Particulate Biosurfactants
7.4 Applications of Biosurfactants
7.4.1 Pharmaceuticals and Therapeutics
7.4.2 Antimicrobial Action
7.4.3 Anticancer Property
7.4.4 Antiviral Activity
7.4.5 Cosmetics Industry
7.4.6 Oil Industry
7.4.7 Agriculture
7.4.8 Commercial Laundry Detergents
7.4.9 Phytoremediation
7.4.10 Soil Washing
7.4.11 Metal Bioremediation
7.5 Future Aspects
7.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Biosurfactants: Versatile Molecules with Potential Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Composition and Structure of Biosurfactants
8.3 Types of Biosurfactants
8.3.1 Polypeptides
8.3.2 Fatty Acids, Phospholipids, and Neutral Lipids
8.3.3 Polymeric Biosurfactants
8.3.4 Particulate Biosurfactants
8.3.5 Glycolipids
8.4 Applications of Biosurfactants
8.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity
8.4.2 Pharmaceuticals/Cosmetics
8.4.3 Food Industry
8.4.4 Textiles
8.4.5 Agriculture
8.4.6 Bioremediation
8.5 Factors Affecting the Production of Biosurfactants
8.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Production of Microbial Enzymes Using Spent Mushroom Compost (SMC) and Its Application
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Spent Mushroom Compost (SMC)
9.1.2 Composition of Spent Mushroom Compost
9.2 Enzymes Present in Spent Mushroom Compost
9.2.1 Ligninolytic Enzymes
9.2.1.1 Laccase
9.2.1.2 Lignin Peroxidase (LiP)
9.2.1.3 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP)
9.2.2 Hydrolytic Enzymes
9.2.2.1 Cellulases
9.2.2.2 Xylanase
9.2.2.3 β-glucosidases
9.3 Microbial Production of Enzymes Through Spent Mushroom Compost
9.3.1 Extraction and Recovery
9.4 Factors Affecting Enzymes in Spent Mushroom Compost
9.4.1 pH
9.4.2 Temperature
9.4.3 Biomass Type
9.4.4 Type of Microorganism
9.5 Industrial Applications and Future Prospects
9.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Indigenous Fermented Food and Beverages of Manipur
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fermented Bamboo Shoot
10.2.1 Soibum
10.2.1.1 Nutritional Value
10.2.2 Soidon
10.2.2.1 Nutritional Values
10.3 Fermented Fish
10.3.1 Ngari
10.3.1.1 Nutritional Value
10.3.2 Hentak/Khaiti
10.3.2.1 Nutritional Value
10.4 Fermented Beans
10.4.1 Hawaijar/Theishui
10.4.1.1 Nutritional Value
10.5 Fermented Alcoholic Beverages
10.5.1 Yu angouba/khor
10.5.2 Atingba
10.5.3 Yu
10.5.4 Nutritional Benefits
10.6 Other Fermented Products
10.6.1 Inziangsang/Ziang-dui/Ziang-sang
10.6.1.1 Nutritional Value
10.6.2 Khaireoshui
10.6.3 Sāyung
10.6.4 Sathu
10.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Microorganisms in Cosmetology
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microorganisms As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
11.3 Bacteria As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
11.3.1 Polysaccharides from Bacteria
11.3.2 Bacterial Metabolites as Biosurfactants
11.3.3 Role of Bacteria-Derived Hyaluronic Acid in Cosmetic Formulations
11.3.4 Enzymes and Proteins from Bacteria
11.4 Algae As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
11.4.1 Anti-Skin Aging Role of Algae
11.4.2 Skin Whitening and Depigmenting Role of Algae
11.4.3 Role of Algae As Antioxidant
11.4.4 Role of Algae in Hair Care
11.4.5 Role of Algae As Moisturizing Agents
11.4.6 Role of Algae As Thickening Agent
11.4.7 Algae As Photo Protector/UV Protector
11.5 Fungi As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
11.5.1 Kojic Acid from Fungi
11.5.2 Lactic Acid from Fungi
11.5.3 Ceramides from Fungi
11.5.4 Terpenoids from Fungi
11.5.5 L-Ergothioneine from Fungi
11.5.6 Polysaccharides from Fungi
11.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Note
References
Part II: Agriculture
Chapter 12: Microbes and Their Products in Sustainable Agriculture
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Microbes Promoting Nutrient Mineralization and Availability
12.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
12.2.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
12.2.3 Potassium-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
12.2.4 Sulfur-Oxidixing Biofertilizers
12.3 Microorganisms Synthesizing Plant Hormones and Inducing Stress Tolerance
12.4 Microorganisms Used for Plant Pest Control
12.4.1 Types of Microbial Biopesticides Used Worldwide
12.4.1.1 Entomopathogenic Fungi-Based Microbial Pesticide
12.4.1.2 Virus-Based Microbial Pesticides
12.4.1.3 Protozoa-Based Microbial Pesticides
12.4.1.4 Microscopic Nematodes-Based Pesticides
12.4.1.5 Bacteria-Based Bacterial Pesticides
12.4.2 Advantages of Using Microbial Pesticides
12.4.3 Disadvantages of Microbial Insecticides
12.5 Co-inoculation
12.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Microbial Biopesticides: An Eco-Friendly Approach for a Sustainable Agro-ecosystem
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Formulation of Microbial Biopesticides
13.3 Types of Microbial Biopesticides
13.3.1 Bacteria
13.3.1.1 Mechanism of Action
13.3.1.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Bacterial Strains
13.3.2 Fungi
13.3.2.1 Mechanism of Action
13.3.2.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Fungi
13.3.3 Viruses
13.3.3.1 Mechanism of Action
13.3.3.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Viral Agents
13.3.4 Microsporidia
13.3.4.1 Mechanism of Action
13.4 Microbial-Derived Anti-Insectan Metabolites and Compounds
13.4.1 Bacteria-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
13.4.1.1 Thuringiensin (Thu)
13.4.1.2 Thiolutin (THL)
13.4.1.3 5-n-hexyl-tetrahydrofuran-2-acetic acid (5-HTFA)
13.4.1.4 Xenorhabdins
13.4.2 Fungi-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
13.4.2.1 Phenolic
13.4.2.2 Polyacetylenes
13.4.2.3 Aflatoxins
13.4.3 Actinomycetes-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
13.4.4 Anti-Insectan Protein Metabolites
13.4.4.1 Cholesterol Oxidase
13.4.4.2 Restrictocin
13.4.4.3 Clostridium Toxin
13.5 Significance of Microbial Biopesticides
13.6 Disadvantages of Microbial Biopesticides
13.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Application and Impact of Biofertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Plant–Microbe Interactions
14.3 Biofertilizers vs Chemical Fertilizer
14.4 Types of Biofertilizers
14.4.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
14.4.1.1 Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
14.4.1.2 Sub-groups of N-fixers
14.4.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers (PSB)
14.4.2.1 Mechanisms of Phosphorus Solubilization
14.4.3 Phosphorus-Mobilizing Biofertilizers: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
14.4.3.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi-Facilitated Networking Beneath the Soil
14.4.4 Potassium Solubilizers
14.4.4.1 Potassium-Solubilizing Microorganisms (KSMs)
14.4.4.2 Mechanism of Potassium Solubilization
14.4.5 Biofertilizers for Micronutrients
14.4.6 Silicate-Solubilizing Bacteria (SSB)
14.4.7 Plant Growth-Promoting Biofertilizers
14.5 Preparation of Biofertilizers
14.5.1 Production of Starter Cultures (Mother Cultures)
14.5.2 Production of Broth Cultures
14.5.3 Production of Final Product in Fermenter
14.5.4 Preparation of Carrier Material
14.5.5 Filling and Packaging
14.5.6 Quality Checking and Storage
14.5.7 Bulk Production of Mycorrhizal Biofertilizers
14.6 Biofertilizer Application Methods to Agricultural Crops
14.6.1 Seed Treatment
14.6.2 Seedling Root Dip
14.6.3 Soil Application
14.6.4 Precautions to be Followed Before Biofertilizer Application
14.7 Quality Control of Biofertilizers
14.8 Future Prospects and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15: Microbial Endophytes of Medicinal Plants as an Emerging Bioresource for Novel Therapeutic Compounds
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Microbial Endophytes
15.3 Endophytes as Sources of Antimicrobial Agents
15.4 Microbial Endophytes as Sources of Therapeutic Drugs
15.5 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antidiabetic Drugs
15.6 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Anticancer Drugs
15.7 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antioxidants
15.8 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antimalarial Drugs
15.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Utility of Probiotics in Aquaculture
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Probiotics and Their Types
16.2.1 Feed or Gut Probiotics
16.2.2 Water Probiotics
16.3 Selection Criteria for Probiotics
16.3.1 Essential Criteria
16.3.2 Favorable Criteria
16.4 Probiotics Administration Methods
16.5 Commercial Probiotic Preparations
16.6 Probiotics Action Mechanisms
16.6.1 Competitive Exclusion of Opportunistic Pathogens by Probiotics
16.6.2 Mitigation of Pathogens by Production of Antimicrobial Materials
16.6.3 Inhibition of Pathogens by Competing for Nutrients
16.6.4 Probiotics Act by Improving the Quality of Water
16.6.5 Interruption of Quorum Signaling
16.6.6 Immunomodulation/Augmentation of Host Immune System
16.7 The Importance of Probiotics in Aquaculture
16.7.1 Maintenance and Preservation of Water Quality
16.7.2 Augmentation of Growth and Survival Rate
16.7.3 Improves Nutrient Utilization, Digestion and Feed Efficiency
16.7.4 Effects on Phytoplankton
16.7.5 Bacteriostatic Effects of Probiotics
16.7.6 Strengthening of the Immune System
16.7.7 Antibacterial Properties of Probiotics
16.7.8 Antifungal Properties of Probiotics
16.7.9 Antiviral Activity of Probiotics
16.7.10 Effects on Reproduction
16.7.11 Improvement in Stress Tolerance
16.8 Limitations of Probiotics and Safety Considerations
16.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 17: The Potential Role of Microbes in the Sustainable Growth of Ornamental Fish Culture
17.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces
17.2 Microbes and Health Management Strategies in Aquarium Fish
17.3 Traditional Ornamental Fish Food
17.4 Probiotics: A Healthy Alternative Food for Ornamental Fish
17.5 Selection of Probiotics
17.6 Probiotics: Mechanism of Action
17.7 Applications of Probiotics in Ornamental Fish Culture
17.7.1 Probiotics and Fish Metabolism
17.7.2 Role of Probiotics in the Growth of Fish Body
17.7.3 Probiotics and Stress Management
17.7.4 The Role of Probiotics in the Reproductive Cycle
17.7.5 Probiotics and Immune System Enhancement
17.7.6 Use of Microbes and Water Quality
17.7.7 Probiotics and Inhibition of Pathogens
17.8 Safety Concerns with the Use of Probiotics
17.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 18: Microbial Metabolites as Fish Immunostimulants: Implications for Aquaculture and Fish Vaccines
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Immunostimulants
18.2 Fungal Derivatives Tested for Their Immunostimulant Activity in Fish
18.2.1 Other Fungal Derivatives
18.3 Commercial Products Tested for Their Immunostimulatory Activity in Fish
18.4 Bacterial Products Tested for Their Immunostimulatory Activity in Fish
18.4.1 Microbial Surfactants
18.4.2 Freund’s (complete) Adjuvant (FCA)
18.4.3 Muramyl Dipeptide (MDP)
18.4.4 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
18.4.5 Curdlan
18.4.6 Flagellin
18.4.7 Bacterins
18.4.8 FK-565
18.5 Algal Derivatives
18.6 Mechanisms of Action
18.7 Mode of Administration
18.7.1 Injection
18.7.2 Feed
18.7.3 Immersion
18.8 Microbial Derivatives As Adjuvants in Fish Vaccines
18.8.1 FCA
18.8.2 β-glucan
18.8.3 Lipopeptides
18.8.4 Flagellin
18.8.5 CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides
18.8.6 Algal Derivatives
18.9 Conclusion
References
Part III: Medicine
Chapter 19: Probiotics for Improving COVID-19 Infection-Linked Microbiome Disparities in Gut
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Healthy Human Microbiome
19.3 Gut Microbiota
19.4 The Contribution of the Gut Microbiota to Low Immunity
19.5 The Role of Probiotics in Various Diseases
19.6 Microbiota Related to Obesity
19.7 Effect of SARS-CoV-2 on Gut Microbiota
19.8 Bacteriocin Compounds/Metabolites Released by Gut Microbiome
19.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Algal Products in Medicine
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Natural Products Obtained from Algae
20.2.1 Antibacterial Properties of Algal Products
20.2.2 Antiviral Properties of Algal Products
20.2.3 Antifungal Activity of Algal Products
20.2.4 Anticancer Properties of Algal Products
20.2.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Algal Products
20.2.6 Antioxidant Activity of Algal Products
20.2.7 Antiprotozoal Activity of Algal Products
20.2.8 Other Medically Relevant Algal Compounds
20.3 Products Obtained from Algae Using Biotechnological Tools
20.4 Use of Algal Products in Tissue Engineering and Other Biomedical Applications
20.5 Summary
References
Chapter 21: Microbial Production and Emerging Applications of Lantibiotics
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Microbial Production of Lantibiotics
21.3 Lantibiotics Produced by Actinobacteria
21.4 Lantibiotics Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria
21.5 Applications of Lantibiotics
21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 22: Bacterial Drug Delivery Vehicles for Targeted Treatment of Tumors
22.1 Suitability of Bacteria for Fabricating Drug Delivery Vehicles
22.2 Bacterial Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy
22.2.1 Bacteriosomes
22.2.2 Minicells
22.2.3 Bacterial Spores
22.2.4 Genetically Modified Bacteria
22.2.5 Bacteriobots
22.2.6 Smart Bacterial Nano-Carriers
22.3 Challenges Associated with Bacteriotherapy in Oncology
22.4 Future Prospects and Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 23: Fungal Products in Medicine
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Contributions of Fungi in Therapeutics
23.3 Products Obtained from Fungi
23.3.1 Antibacterial Activity of Fungal Products
23.3.2 Antiviral Activity of Fungal Products
23.3.3 Anticancer Activity of Fungal Products
23.3.4 Antifungal Activity of Fungal Products
23.3.5 Other Medically Relevant Products
23.4 Fungal Vaccines
23.4.1 Whole Organism, Live-Attenuated Vaccines
23.4.2 Whole Organism, Heat-Killed or Formalin-Inactivated Vaccines
23.4.3 Recombinant (Subunit) Vaccines
23.4.4 Conjugate Vaccines
23.4.5 DNA Vaccines
23.4.6 Antigen-Primed Dendritic Cells
23.4.7 Passive Immunization
23.5 Products Obtained FROM FUNGI Using Biotechnological Tools
23.6 Tissue Engineering and Other Biomedical Applications
23.6.1 Targeted Drug Delivery
23.7 Summary
References
Chapter 24: Virosomes: A Drug Delivery System
24.1 Introduction
24.1.1 Structure and Composition
24.1.2 Properties
24.1.3 Viruses Used
24.1.4 Advantages of Virosomes
24.1.4.1 Comparisons With Liposomes/Actual Viruses
24.1.5 Characterization
24.2 Attachment and Fusion
24.3 Interaction with Immune System
24.4 Preparation
24.5 Applications of Virososmes
24.5.1 Virosomes for Vaccination
24.5.1.1 Virosomes for Antigen Delivery
24.5.1.2 Virosomes as Adjuvants and Complexed with Adjuvants
24.5.1.3 Some Commercial Virosome-Based Vaccines
24.5.2 Virosomes for Delivery of Nucleic Acids
24.5.2.1 Virosome for DNA Delivery
24.5.2.2 Delivery of siRNA by Virosomes
24.5.3 Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
24.5.3.1 Influenza Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
24.5.3.2 Sendai Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
24.5.3.3 Virosomes as Drug Delivery Agents in Cancer Treatment
24.5.3.4 Cervical Cancer Treatment With Virosomes
24.5.4 Virosomes in Covid Treatment
24.5.5 Limitations of Virosomes
24.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 25: Bioactive Compounds As Potential Remedy Against Coronaviruses
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)
25.2.1 Coronaviruses
25.2.2 Genome and Proteins
25.2.3 Replication and Life-Cycle
25.2.4 Pathogenesis
25.2.5 Epidemiology
25.3 Advantages of Bioactive Compounds
25.4 Significant Sources of Bioactive Compounds Against COVID
25.4.1 Plant Derived
25.4.2 Algae Derived
25.4.3 Fungi Derived
25.4.4 Animal Derived
25.4.5 Marine
25.5 Different Modes of Action of Bioactive Compounds Against Coronaviruses
25.6 Different Viral Targets for Bioactive Compounds Against COVID
25.6.1 Spike Protein
25.6.2 Main Protease
25.6.3 Papain-like Protease
25.6.4 RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase
25.6.5 Nucleocapsid (N) Proteins
25.6.6 Other Viral Targets
25.6.7 Host ACE2 and TMPRSS2 Proteins
25.7 Bioactive Formulation As Herbal Therapy
25.8 Repurposing Bioactive Peptides for COVID Therapy
25.9 Conclusion
References
Part IV: In-Silico and Mathematical Tools
Chapter 26: Bioinformatics and Vaccine Development: Overview and Prospects
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Immunoinformatics
26.3 Immunomics
26.4 Reverse Vaccinology
26.5 Structural Vaccinology
26.6 Infectious Diseases and Vaccines
26.6.1 Tuberculosis
26.6.2 Influenza
26.6.3 Zika Virus Disease
26.6.4 COVID-19
26.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 27: Petri Net Modeling as an Aid in Bioprocess Designing
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Preliminaries of Petri Net (PN) Modeling
27.1.2 Definition
27.2 Why are Petri Nets Necessary for the Fermentation Process?
27.3 Modeling and Notation of the Elements of a Petri Net for Fermentation Process
27.4 Petri Net Modeling of the Fermentation Process
27.5 Modeling Description and Computational Steps
27.5.1 Firing rule
27.5.2 Reachability Graph
27.6 Workflow Petri Net Designer Tool (WoPeD 3.8.0) for Fermentation Process
27.7 Conclusions and Scope
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 28: Applications of Machine Learning in Bioprocess Development and Optimization
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Bioprocess Development and Modeling
28.3 Building Mathematical Models for Bioprocesses
28.4 Stages of Bioprocess Development
28.5 Bioprocess Optimization Approaches
28.5.1 Sequential Optimization
28.5.2 Parallel Optimization
28.6 Machine Learning (ML)-Based Bioprocess Optimization
28.7 Conclusion
References
Index