The archaeological record is a combination of what is seen by eye, as well as the microscopic record revealed with the help of instrumentation. The information embedded in the microscopic record can significantly add to our understanding of past human behavior, provided this information has not been altered by the passage of time. Microarchaeology seeks to understand the microscopic record in terms of the type of information embedded in this record, the materials in which this information resides, and the conditions under which a reliable signal can be extracted. This book highlights the concepts needed to extract information from the microscopic record. Intended for all archaeologists and archaeological scientists, it will be of particular interest to students who have some background in the natural sciences as well as archaeology. *Emphasizes the nature of the materials in which information is embedded and the problems associated with extracting a real signal. *Provides a comprehensive list of the types of information embedded in the microscopic archaeological record. *Offers an in-depth overview of the use of infrared spectroscopy for analyzing the microscopic record, the only one of its kind available.
Author(s): Stephen Weiner
Edition: 1
Year: 2010
Language: English
Pages: 414
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 19
1 Archaeology, Archaeological Science, and Microarchaeology......Page 21
Archaeology is a difficult science......Page 23
Historical perspective......Page 24
Archaeological science......Page 25
The microscopic record......Page 26
The importance of integrating microarchaeology with macroarchaeology......Page 28
The ideal solution to this problem......Page 29
The concept of this book......Page 30
Conclusions......Page 32
2 Information Embedded in the Microscopic Record......Page 33
Archaeobotanical record......Page 36
Perspective on techniques used for dating materials from archaeological sites......Page 38
Radiocarbon dating......Page 39
Dendrochronology......Page 41
Trapped charge dating: Thermoluminescence (TL), optical stimulated luminescence (OSL), and electron spin resonance (ESR)......Page 42
Obsidian hydration dating......Page 43
Amino acid racemization dating......Page 44
Dating by archaeomagnetism......Page 45
Life history reconstruction of individuals......Page 46
Paleodiet reconstruction......Page 47
Stable isotope paleodiet reconstruction......Page 48
Molecules trapped in ceramics (residue analysis)......Page 49
Micromorphology......Page 50
Rare earth elements......Page 51
Stable isotope compositional variations......Page 52
Paleogenetics......Page 53
Pottery contents......Page 55
Provenience studies......Page 56
Soapstone (steatite)......Page 57
Metals......Page 58
Pottery......Page 59
Procurement strategies......Page 60
Rhythmic growth......Page 61
Site formation processes......Page 62
Site spatial organization......Page 63
Weaning age......Page 64
3 Completeness of the Archaeological Record......Page 66
The almost complete record......Page 67
Macroscopic versus microscopic records......Page 71
Time frame......Page 72
Hydrological regime and chemical reactions......Page 74
Materials that degrade......Page 76
Organic material......Page 77
Minerals......Page 79
Minerals rearranging at the atomic level......Page 81
Conclusions......Page 82
Practical applications of the conceptual framework......Page 83
Future prospects for improving our understanding of the missing archaeological record......Page 86
4 Common Mineral Components of the Archaeological Record......Page 88
X-ray diffraction......Page 90
Raman spectroscopy......Page 91
Size and shape of mineral particles......Page 92
In situ assemblages of minerals (micromorphology)......Page 93
Zhoukoudian Layer 10 (China): Are these anthropogenically produced ashes?......Page 94
Calcite and the calcium carbonate mineral family......Page 96
Calcite and aragonite: Similarities and differences......Page 97
Geogenic calcites......Page 98
Biogenic calcites......Page 99
Diagenesis of calcite and aragonite......Page 100
Differentiating among geogenic, biogenic, and pyrogenic calcites......Page 101
Cemented sediment: Recrystallized wood ash or a geogenic cement?......Page 102
Carbonate hydroxylapatite......Page 103
Atomic structure......Page 104
Stability field......Page 105
Identifying areas in a site that had high organic contents......Page 106
Paleoclimate reconstruction......Page 107
Quartz and flint/chert......Page 108
Silica......Page 109
Microcrystalline quartz in flint and chert......Page 110
Provenience and procurement strategies of flint and chert......Page 111
The clay family......Page 112
Clay structures and classification......Page 113
Clay and organic materials......Page 114
Diagenesis......Page 115
Clay provenience......Page 116
General implications of mineral assemblages for site preservation......Page 117
Assessing the completeness of the archaeological record......Page 118
Biomineralization: Archaeological Perspective......Page 119
Bone and bones......Page 121
Level 1: The basic constituents......Page 122
Level 3: The fibril arrays......Page 126
Level 5: Osteonal bone......Page 127
Level 7: Whole bone......Page 128
Porosity......Page 129
Mineral diagenesis......Page 130
Organic matrix diagenesis......Page 132
Microbial and fungal diagenesis......Page 133
Bones lying on the soil surface......Page 135
Buried bones......Page 136
Burned bone......Page 137
Migration pathways......Page 138
Paleodiet reconstruction......Page 139
Paleogenetics......Page 141
Radiocarbon dating......Page 142
Teeth......Page 143
Level 1: The basic constituents......Page 144
Dentin: The hierarchical structure......Page 146
Level 2: The mineralized collagen fibril......Page 147
Level 6: The whole dentin component of the tooth......Page 148
Cementum......Page 149
Enamel diagenesis......Page 150
Dentin diagenesis......Page 151
Enamel......Page 152
Cementum......Page 153
Dental calculus......Page 154
Phytoliths......Page 155
Phytolith material......Page 156
Phytolith formation and morphology......Page 157
Taxonomy......Page 159
Plant parts......Page 160
Reference collection......Page 161
Sampling and analysis......Page 162
Diagenesis......Page 163
Identifying ancient irrigation practices and/or rainfall......Page 165
Identifying plant taxa brought to the site......Page 166
Paleovegetation ecology......Page 167
Use of space......Page 168
Diatoms......Page 169
Ancient irrigation practices......Page 170
Basic morphology and structure......Page 171
Dating using amino acid racemization......Page 172
Radiocarbon dating......Page 173
Morphology, ultrastructure, and mineralogy......Page 174
Reconstructing the paleoenvironment......Page 176
Mollusk shells......Page 177
Shell ultrastructure and mineralogy......Page 179
Mineral phase......Page 180
Embedded information......Page 182
Reconstructing the paleoenvironment......Page 183
Site preservation......Page 184
7 Reconstructing Pyrotechnological Processes......Page 185
Basic concepts of heating and cooling......Page 186
Order and disorder in solids......Page 187
Ash......Page 188
Composition of ash......Page 189
Ash from wood and bark......Page 190
PH above 8......Page 192
PH below 8......Page 193
Identifying ash produced by burning wood and bark......Page 194
Demonstrating control of fire by humans......Page 199
Fuel types used for fires......Page 200
Type of wood used for fires......Page 201
Charcoal and charred materials......Page 202
Molecular structure of modern wood charcoal produced in natural fires......Page 203
Molecular structure of fossil wood charcoal from archaeological sites......Page 205
Diagenesis......Page 206
Ink......Page 207
Wood identification......Page 208
Binders......Page 209
Calcite binder......Page 210
Hydraulic plaster and mortar......Page 212
Proportions of aggregates and binders......Page 213
Diagenesis......Page 214
Radiocarbon dating......Page 215
Reconstructing production procedures and functions......Page 216
Refractory materials produced by heating carbonate rocks......Page 217
Ceramics and pottery......Page 218
Fluxes......Page 219
Drying......Page 220
Firing conditions......Page 221
Provenience and trade......Page 222
Production areas......Page 224
Manufacturing processes......Page 226
Refractory ceramics......Page 229
Concluding comment......Page 230
8 Biological Molecules and Macromolecules: Protected Niches......Page 231
Brief overview of different biomolecules of interest in biomolecular archaeology......Page 232
DNA......Page 233
Polysaccharides......Page 234
Historical perspective......Page 235
Protected niche 1: intracrystalline macromolecules......Page 236
Paleoenvironmental reconstruction......Page 238
Protected niche 2: macromolecules inside intergrown biogenic crystals (crystal aggregates)......Page 239
Paleodiet reconstruction......Page 241
Radiocarbon dating......Page 242
Protected niche 3: molecules preserved in ceramics......Page 243
Optimize ceramic porosity......Page 244
Optimize ceramic material type......Page 245
The enigmatic preservation of starch grains......Page 246
Where were there once large concentrations of organic materials?......Page 247
Possibility of finding other protected niches for organic molecules......Page 249
9 Ethnoarchaeology of the Microscopic Record: Learning from the Present......Page 251
Microartifacts: the ethnographic evidence of their usefulness......Page 252
Controls......Page 254
Ethnoarchaeology of the microscopic record......Page 255
Features outside house complexes......Page 256
Features inside house complexes......Page 258
Inferences on the microscopic record of an Eskimo winter house based on macroscopic observations......Page 260
Animal dung: merging of the archaeozoological and archaeobotanical microscopic records......Page 261
Identifying and characterizing livestock enclosures......Page 263
Phytoliths......Page 264
Charcoal......Page 267
Concluding remarks......Page 268
10 Absolute Dating: Assessing the Quality of a Date......Page 269
Understanding a date: the communication gap problem......Page 271
Solution to the communication gap problem......Page 272
Calibration......Page 273
The macrocontext......Page 274
The microcontext......Page 275
Context for trapped charge dating......Page 276
Choice of sample type......Page 278
Number of samples to collect and analyze......Page 279
Bone collagen......Page 280
Charcoal purification......Page 282
Radiocarbon laboratory measurements: are there biases?......Page 283
Future prospects......Page 284
Benefits of an on-site interactive laboratory......Page 285
On-site laboratories for the analysis of the macroscopic record......Page 286
Basic considerations......Page 287
Wet-sieving apparatus for charred materials......Page 288
X-ray fluorescence spectrometer......Page 289
UV-visible spectrophotometer......Page 290
Mapping and three-dimensional reconstructions......Page 291
Operation of the laboratory......Page 292
First visit to the site......Page 293
Controls......Page 294
What fuel was commonly used at the site?......Page 295
Are there indications of pyrotechnological activities other than making fires?......Page 296
Future trends......Page 297
12 Infrared Spectroscopy in Archaeology......Page 299
Sample preparation......Page 300
Quantification......Page 301
Mineral, macromolecule, or small organic molecules?......Page 302
Shifting of peak maxima......Page 303
Variations in peak widths......Page 304
Library of archaeologically relevant infrared spectra......Page 305
1. Polymorphs of calcium carbonate......Page 306
2. Calcite disorder: Distinguishing between calcites formed by different processes......Page 308
3. The apatite family: Hydroxylapatite, carbonate hydroxylapatite, and carbonate fluorapatite......Page 310
4. Crystallinity of bone, dentin, and enamel: The splitting factor......Page 313
5. Burned bones......Page 316
6. Authigenic phosphate minerals......Page 319
7. Silicon dioxide polymorphs: Quartz, flint (chert), silica (opal), and other polymorphs......Page 321
8. Clays......Page 324
9. Clay exposed to elevated temperatures......Page 327
10. Calcium oxalates......Page 330
11. Collagen: State of preservation......Page 331
12. Wood and olive pit preservation......Page 333
13. Natural organic materials: Resin, copal, amber, gum, bitumen, and humic and fulvic acids......Page 336
14. Presence of soluble salts in sediment samples......Page 339
Appendix A Identifying Minerals Using Microchemical Analysis......Page 341
Appendix B Identifying Minerals and Compounds Using Infrared Spectra: Table of Standard Minerals and Compounds for Which Infrared Spectra Are Available......Page 344
References......Page 351
Index......Page 397
