Mental Health and Illness of Children and Adolescents

Foreword
Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Series Editors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Diagnostic Classification, Assessment, and Cultural Diversity
1 Diagnoses
Introduction
Diagnosis in Developmental Context
Critique of Diagnosis
Alternatives
Usefulness of the ICD and DSM Diagnostic Systems
What We Can and Cannot Expect from a Diagnosis
How to Use Diagnostic Criteria to the Benefit of Our Patients
References
2 Screening Methods and When to Use Them
Introduction
Screening: Definition and Purpose
Types of Screening
Criteria for Screening Programs
Screening and Surveillance
The Case for Screening in Child Mental Health
Screening Tests
The Role of Informants
Properties of Screening Tests
Test Reliability
Test Accuracy
Thresholds in Screening Measures
The Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) Curve
Test Accuracy in Different Populations
Screening in Practice
Examples of Targeted Screening
Screening of Children in Care/Child Welfare
Screening Young Offenders
Screening Tools as Part of the Referral and Assessment Process in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services
Wider Population Screening
Harms and Limitations of Screening
Harms and Limitations Relating to the Test
Take-Up and Reach of Screening Programs
Screening Alone Does Not Prevent or Treat Disease
Conclusions
References
3 Multicultural Perspectives on Assessment and Taxonomy of Psychopathology
The Need for Multi-informant Assessments
Top-Down Use of Multi-informant Data
Standardized Diagnostic Interviews (SDIs)
Cross-informant Agreement on SDI Diagnoses
Bottom-Up Use of Multi-informant Data
Standardized Rating Forms
Cross-informant Agreement on Scale Scores
Multicultural Findings for Top-Down and Bottom-Up Models of Psychopathology
Top-Down Multicultural Findings
Findings for Prevalence Estimates
Bottom-Up Multicultural Findings
Findings for Taxonomic Constructs
Findings for Total Problems Scores
Comparisons of Societal and Cultural Effects
Multicultural Norms
Categorical and Dimensional Models
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Part II: Epidemiology
4 Trends in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Prevalence, Outcomes, and Inequalities
Importance of Understanding Trends in Mental Health
Trends in Prevalence in High-Income Countries
The Need for Unselected Population-Based Comparisons
Trends Differ by Type of Mental Health Problem, Child Age, and Gender
Explaining Mental Health Trends
Trends in Socio-Economic Disparities
Child Health-Related Behavior and Lifestyle
Social Relationships and School Environment
Family Risk
Priorities for Future Research
Global Child Mental Health Trends
Trends in Outcomes for Children with Mental Health Problems
Developing Robust Methodologies
Conclusion/Implications
Cross-References
References
5 Gaps Between Knowledge, Services, and Needs
Introduction
Characterizing the Needs
Case Identification: The Starting Point to Access to Services
Learning from Theoretical Advances
Continuum of Care and Integration Between Sectors
The Role of Digital Technology
Social Media and Digital Footprints
Mobile Applications and Bots
Expanding the Workforce
Policy Making
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
6 Epidemiology of Child Psychopathology
Introduction
Major Milestone Population-Based Epidemiological Studies
Studies Initiated Prior to 1960
Studies Initiated Between 1960 and 1970
Studies Initiated Between 1970 and 1980
Studies Initiated Between 1980 and 1990
Studies Initiated Between 1990 and 2000
Studies Initiated Between 2000 and 2010
Studies Initiated from 2010 Onward
The Generation R Study
Prenatal Exposures and Fetal Growth
Fetal Growth and Postnatal Child Development
Social Disadvantage and Fetal Growth
Prenatal Exposures and Postnatal Brain Development
Infant Neuromotor Development and Childhood Problem Behavior
Methodological Considerations
Confounding and Causal Inference
Reverse Causality
Shared Method Variance Bias
Replication
Selection Bias
Suggestions for Future Studies
Conclusion
References
7 Population Neuroscience
Introduction
Neurodevelopmental Studies
Key Population Neuroscience Studies
Longitudinal Clinical Studies
High-Risk Studies
Studies of Typically Developing Children and Adolescents
Methodological Considerations in Psychiatric Neuroimaging and Population Neuroscience
Representativeness and Generalizability
High Dimensional Data and Multiple Testing
Confounding
Reverse Causality and Bidirectionality in Brain-Behavior Studies
Imaging Genetic Studies
Clinical and Public Health Relevance of Population Neuroscience
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part III : Childhood Adversities
8 Movement of Peoples
Introduction
Definitions and Data
Migration and Wellbeing
The Growing Significance of Urbanization
Conclusion: Migration and Urbanization as Social Determinants of Health
Cross-References
References
9 Trauma-Related Mental Illness in Children and Adolescents
Introduction
Understanding the Mental Health Burden of Trauma in Children and Adolescents
Prevalence of Trauma
Trauma-Related Mental Illness
Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Trauma and Mental Illness
Risk Factors for Trauma and Related Mental Illness
Managing the Mental Health Burden of Trauma in Children and Adolescents
Initial Response to Trauma
Assessment of Trauma-Related Mental Illness
Treatment of Trauma-Related Mental Illness
Prevention of Trauma-Related Mental Illness
Conclusions
Resources
Cross-References
References
10 Child Abuse and Neglect in Multiproblem Families
Introduction
Risk Factors
Lifetime Prevalence
Detection in Childhood
Barriers to Detection
Outcomes
Death
Nonfatal Outcomes
Developmental Delay
Risky and Damaging Behavior
Diminished Life Chances
Poor Mental and Physical Health
Reduced Life Expectancy
Economic Burden
Resilience
Explanatory Models for Resilience, Pathogenesis, and Treatment
Acquisition of Resilience through ``Containing,´´ ``Inoculation,´´ and Symbolic Thinking
Pathogens Model
Mindlessness
Repetitions
Infectious Phase
Treatment
Introduction
Emotional Connection
Building a Mind
Diverting the Repetitions
Prevention
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
11 Street Children, Exploitation, and Slavery
Introduction
Street Children
Child Slavery
Child Soldiers
Child Labor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
12 Family Issues in Child Mental Health
Introduction
Culture
Family, Culture, and Development
Cultural Context of Psychopathology in Children
Family Context and CAMH
Child Rearing Practices and Mental Health
The Changing Family Systems
Effects of Societal and Familial Change on Mental Health
Resilience
Cyberage and Child Mental Health
Key Challenges for Mental Health Professionals/Services
Conclusion
References
13 Burden and Cost Associated with Childhood Bullying Victimization
Introduction
Bullying
Prevalence and Developmental Trends
Does Bullying Victimization Contribute to the Development of Mental Health Problems in Childhood and Adolescence?
Can the Effect of Childhood Bullying Victimization on Mental Health Problems Persist into the Adult Years?
Individual and Societal Costs of Childhood Bullying Victimization
Anti-bullying Interventions
Is It Valuable, Feasible, and Acceptable to Strengthen Interventions Focusing on Victims and Potential Victims of Bullying?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
14 Stigmatization and Society´s Inclusiveness Across Cultures
Introduction
What Is Stigma? Definitions and Concepts Related to Stigma and Discrimination
Stigma and Culture
Anti-stigma Strategies
Anti-stigma Strategies as Applied to Youth
Placing Stigma at the Center of Improved Population Well-Being
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
15 Parents with Psychiatric Conditions
Introduction
Parents with Psychiatric Conditions
Depression
Anxiety Disorders
Alcohol and Substance Misuse
Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder
Intergenerational Transmission of Psychiatric Disorders
Neurobiological Processes
Intervention on Parent and Child Outcomes
Clinical Implications
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
16 Socioeconomic Inequalities and Mental Health Problems in Children and Adolescents
Introduction
What Is the Magnitude of Socioeconomic Inequalities in Child and Adolescent Mental Health?
Are There Differences in SES Indicators?
Are There Differences Between Countries?
Are There Differences by Age and Gender?
Are There Differences by Type of Disorder?
Do Continuity and Change of Parental SES Have an Effect on Child Mental Health?
Secular Trends and Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Factors and Mechanisms Explaining Inequalities in Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Social Selection and Social Causation Hypotheses
Mechanisms Explaining Inequalities in Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Prenatal Influences
Influences in Childhood and Adolescence
Influences at the Institutional Level
Prevention Strategies
Interventions that Directly Reduce Poverty
Interventions that Target Mediating Mechanisms
Conclusions
What Next?
References
Part IV: Maternal Health and the Infant
17 Prenatal Mental Health: Continuous Care from Pregnancy
Introduction
What Childbirth Brings to Women
Physical and Obstetric Conditions
Financial Health
Psychosocial Change of Women
Family Relationship
What Disturbs Women´s Psychological Well-Being and Emotion
Special Issues Related to Childbirth
Special Care for Separation
Special Care for Women Who Lost Their Babies
Preconception Counseling
Mother-Infant Relationship and Child Outcomes
Significance of Care from Pregnant Period
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
18 Perinatal Psychiatry
Introduction
Psychiatric Disorders in Perinatal Period
Perinatal Depression
Symptoms and Clinical Course
Risk Factors
Screening
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS)
Whooley Questions
Anxiety Disorders
Bonding Disorder
Significance of Bonding Disorder
Screening
The Mother to Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS) and the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ)
Puerperal Psychosis
Bipolar Disorder
Treatment
Intervention for Depression
Psychotropic Medication
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI), Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor (SNRI), and Antipsychotic Drugs
Antianxiety Drugs and CBT
Lithium
Antiepileptic and Other Drugs
In-Patient Treatment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
19 Parental Health and Early Child Development
Introduction
Early Child Development and Contributions of Parental Health
Developmental Origins of Health and Disease
Contributions of Perinatal Mental Health of Parents
The Importance of Nurturing Care for Early Child Development
Early Mother Infant Interaction
Risk and Protective Factors for Early Child Development
Interventions for Parental Health and Early Child Development
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
20 Infant Feeding and Clinical Problems
Introduction
Development of Feeding
Feeding Disorders
Definition and Diagnostic System
Risk Factors and Etiology
Assessment
Treatment
Clinical Example
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part V: Physical Conditions and Child and Adolescent Mental Health
21 Toxins and Pollution
Introduction
Metals
Lead
Mercury
Manganese
Implications for Practice
Chemicals in Pregnancy and Infancy
Organohalogens
Other Pesticides
Tobacco
Alcohol
Prenatal Fluoride?
Prescribed Medications
Cocaine
Air Pollution
Post-natal Chemical Exposure
Cannabis
Allergens and Intolerance
Artificial Food Colors and Preservatives
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
22 Chronic Illness: Asthma
Introduction
Effects of Stress in Children with Asthma
Psychological Problems of the Child
Parental Burden
Role of Stress in Asthma Onset
Effect of Stress on the Course of Asthma
Effect of Stress on Treatment Response
Time of Stress Exposure
Acute Stress Closely Preceding Exacerbations
Joint Effects of Acute and Chronic Stress
Prenatal/Early Life Stress
Intergenerational Transmission of Stress
Sources of Stress
Parent Mental Health Problems
Family Functioning
Parent-Child Relationship
School Influences on the Stress-Asthma Relationship
Wider Social Influences on Stress-Asthma Relationship
Mechanisms of Stress
Clinical Implications and Therapeutic Possibilities
Cross-References
References
23 Conversion Disorder
Introduction
Epidemiology
Clinical Features
Assessment
Psychosocial Problems or Stressors
Differential Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of Chronic Conversion Disorder
Prognosis
Barriers to Care
Prevention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
24 Chronic Fatigue in the Context of Pediatric Physical and Mental Illness
Introduction
Fatigue and Disability
Fatigue and Psychopathology
Model of Understanding Fatigue
Treatments for Fatigue
Barriers to Treatment
Conclusion
References
25 The Effect of Malnutrition and Micronutrient Deficiency on Children´s Mental Health
Introduction
Malnutrition
Environment of Malnourished Children
Assessment of Behavior and Mental Health
Severe Acute Malnutrition, Mental Health, and Behavior
Moderate Malnutrition, Mental Health, and Behavior
Effects of Interventions on Behavior and Mental Health
Summary
Iron Deficiency Anemia
Longitudinal Studies
Effects of Interventions
Micronutrient Deficiency, Mental Health, and Behavior
Iodine Deficiency
Zinc Deficiency
Vitamin D Deficiency
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
26 Infectious Diseases
Introduction
Intellectual Disability and Schizophrenia Spectrum
Congenital Infections: TORCHES
Toxoplasmosis
Congenital Rubella
Congenital Cytomegalovirus
Congenital Herpes
Congenital Varicella
Congenital Syphilis
Congenital and Early-Acquired HIV
Schizophrenia
Impact of Infective Encephalopathies on Young People´s Mental Development: Herpes, HIV, Malaria, and Cysticercosis
HIV Chronic Effects
Malaria
Common Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Chronic Psychosocial Adversity
Brain Damage
Effects of Chronic Illness
Inflammatory and Immune Effects
Neural and Neuroendocrine Effects
Iatrogenic Change
PANDAS and PANS
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Part VI: Neurological Conditions
27 Epilepsy
Introduction and Background
General Comments on Epilepsy
Childhood Epilepsy and Psychiatric Disturbance
Stigma and Resource Implications
Epidemiological Studies of Psychiatric and Behavioral Disturbance in Children
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Anxiety
Depression
Psychosis
Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood Epilepsy Syndromes
Behavioral Effects of Antiseizure Treatment
Antiseizure Medications (ASMs)
Epilepsy Surgery
Prescription of Psychotropic Medication in Children with Psychiatric and Behavioral Disturbance
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
28 Psychiatric Consequences of Traumatic Brain Injury in Children and Adolescents
Introduction: Terminology and Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Classification
Classification of Brain Injuries Depending on Severity
Issues
Psychological and Psychiatric Outcomes Following Brain Injury
Mild Brain Injury and Concussion
Psychological/Psychiatric Consequences of Mild Brain Injury
Assessment and Management Following Mild Brain Injury
Risk Factors for Persisting Symptoms Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Moderate and Severe Brain Injury
Neurocognitive Deficits
Psychological/Behavioral Difficulties and Psychiatric Disorder Following Moderate/Severe Brain Injury
Psychological Difficulties
Psychiatric Outcome
Risk Factors for Psychological Symptoms and Psychiatric Disorders
Psychiatric Assessment of a Child Following Traumatic Brain Injury
Presenting Concerns
Information About the Injury and Circumstances
Past Psychiatric History
Developmental History
Educational History
Family History Including Family History of Psychiatric Disorders
Mental State Examination
Physical Examination with Particular Care to Neurological Examination
Other
Management of Psychiatric Disorder and Psychological Disturbance
A. Preventative Measures
Service Provision
Interventions for Psychological/Psychiatric Difficulties Following Brain Injury
Psycho-education and Information to Child, Parents, and School
Cognitive Rehabilitation Following Brain Injury
Family Intervention Directed to Helping Emotional/Behavioral Problems
Pharmacological Interventions for Psychological Symptoms and Psychiatric Disorder Following Brain Injury
Psychological Interventions for Emotional Difficulties
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Prevention, Treatment, and Services
29 Family Work in the Community and CAMH Care System
Introduction
Understanding Family Work with Health Systems Perspective
``Stepped-Up Care Model´´ and Families as ``Change Agents´´
Families as ``Attitude, Behavior-Change Makers´´ at the Community Level
Integration of CAMH Services at Various Levels of Care and Role of Families
Empowered Families as Co-therapists and Collaborators at Tertiary Level
Family Work Within the Health System: A Theory of Change (ToC) Framework
Family Empowerment to Address Burden of Care
Mitigating Impact of Migration and Climate Change Disasters
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
30 Mental Health in Schools
Introduction
How Does Childhood Mental Disorder Impact School?
School Attendance
School Dropout
Exclusion from School
Academic Attainment
School-Specific Stressors with the Potential to Undermine Mental Health
The Identification of Mental Disorder in Schools
School-Based Interventions for Mental Disorder
Emotional Disorders
ADHD
Behavioral Problems
Who Is Best Placed to Deliver School-Based Mental Health Interventions?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
31 Education in Mental Health
Education and Health: Health Education and Health Promotion in the Community
Education and Mental Health: Public Mental Health Programs
Education to Reduce Stigma in Mental Health Conditions
The Role of the Family in Mental Health Education
Education in Schools
Education in More Specialized Mental Health Settings
Other Barriers to Implementation and New Challenges for Mental Health Education
References
32 Misuse of Alcohol, Drugs, and Other Substances
Introduction
Prevalence and Correlates
Substance Misuse in the Young: A Developmental Perspective
Definitions Based on International Classificatory Systems
Alternative Classifications for Substance Use in Young People
Etiology: Risk and Protective Factors
Mental Health Problems that Predate and Possibly Contribute to Substance Misuse
Cooccurring Mental Health Problems
Consequences of Substance Misuse
Assessment
Mental State Examination and Physical Examination
Investigations
Treatment
Evidence Base for Treatment
Prevention of Substance Misuse
Evidence Base for Preventive Interventions
Developing Treatment Programs in Developing Countries
Innovative Strategies to Create Large System Change
Developing Prevention Programs in Developing Countries
Conclusions
References
33 Self-Harm and Suicidality in Children and Adolescents
Introduction
Epidemiology and Risk Factors
Reasons for Self-Harm
Prevention
Assessment
Management
Psychological Therapies
Hospital Admission and Discharge
Medication
Conclusions
Other Resources
References
34 Services for Neurodevelopmental Disorders such as Autism Spectrum, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Tic...
Introduction
Goals
Understanding About the Conditions
Reduction of Core Symptoms
ADHD
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Intellectual Developmental Disorders (Intellectual Disability)
Tourette and Chronic Tics
Recognition and Treatment of Complications
Physical Illnesses
Recognition and Treatment of Associated Problems
Environmental Adjustments
Organization of Services
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
35 Pharmacological Approaches in Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Introduction
General Issues
Good Prescribing Practice for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Problems
Off-Label Prescribing
Dosing and Variation in Pharmacokinetics in Children and Adolescents
Medication Treatments for Specific Disorders
Medication Treatments for ADHD
Stimulant Medications
Non-stimulant Medications
Practical Issues in the Pharmacological Management of ADHD
Medication Treatments for Depression
Suicidality
Medication Treatments for Anxiety
Medication Treatments for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Medication Treatments for Tics and Tourette´s
Medication Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Medication Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
Medication Treatments for Schizophrenia
Managing Adverse Effects
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
36 Psychological Treatment of Mental Health Problems in Children and Adolescents
Multimodal Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy
Context Orientation and Multiple Intervention Levels
Developmental Orientation
Evidenced-Based Mechanisms of Change
Focus on Specific Problem Behavior
Individually Tailored Treatment
Evidence-Based Treatment
Multimodal Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy for Children with Internalizing and Externalizing Mental Health Problems
Interventions for Internalizing Problem Behavior in Youth
Interventions for Anxiety in Youth
Interventions for Depression in Youth
Interventions for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Eating Disorders in Youth
Interventions for Externalizing Problem Behavior in Youth
Interventions for Oppositional Defiant and Conduct Disorder in Youth
Interventions for Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Youth
References
37 Care Transition from Child/Adolescents to Adult Services
Introduction
Care Transition in the Global Context
Psychopathology in Young People
Transition Outcomes and Experiences
Transition Pathways
Adult Mental Health Services
Alternative Destinations
Outcomes Linked to Transitioning to AMHS
Transition Experiences
Young People
Parents/Carers
Barriers/Facilitators to Good Quality Care Transition
Individual/Service User Level
Factors Associated with Transitioning/Not Transitioning to AMHS
Young Person´s Perspective
Clinician Qualities, Relationships, and Practices Related to Transitioning
Organizational Level
Improving Care Transition
Protocol and Reciprocal Agreement Model
The Shared Management Framework Model
Managed Transition Model
Transition Program Model
Youth-Friendly Service Model
Involving Young Service Users
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Under Review
Part VIII: Mental Public Health Strategy and Policy
38 Mental Health Strategy and Policy
Introduction
Urbanicity and Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Mental Health Strategy and Policy in Rural and Urban Area
Child and Adolescent Mental Health: Promotion and Prevention in Rural and Urban Areas
Building Healthy Public Policy
Creating Supportive Environments
Family Centered
Community Based
Youth Engagement
Cultural Sensitivity
Reorienting Health Services
Developing Personal Skills
Strengthening Community Action
Community Engagement and Collaboration
Community Analysis
Setting Shared Goal and Setting Priority
Community Empowerment
Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders: Treatment and Rehabilitation in Rural and Urban Area
Service Delivery
CAMHS Need Assessment
Clients Classification Based on Clinical Severity
Identification of Effective Intervention for Each Category
Implementation Design
Health Workforce
Health Information Systems
Access to Essential Medicines
Financing
Prioritizing Areas of CAMH Investment
Building of a Coalition with CAMH Stakeholders
Financial Resource Allocation
Leadership and Governance
SWOT Analysis and Strategic Planning
Conclusion
Summary
Cross-References
References
Part IX: Health Economics
39 A Public Health Response to Mental Health
Introduction
The Need
Innovation and Scale-Up of Services
Policy-Based Approaches
A Whole Systems Approach
Setting-Based Approach
Making Use of Existing Services
Promotion of Joint Working Across Sectors
Assessment of Need Across Sectors
Evidence-Based Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part X: Education and Training of Child Mental Health Professionals
40 Education and Training
Introduction
The Challenge of the Prevalence of Mental Health Problems Among Children and Adolescents
CAMHS Training
Acquisition of a Wide Range of Skills and Knowledge
Frameworks for Training
Methods for Learning
Rapid Developments in Science and Delivery of Teaching
Science
Advances in Knowledge and Skills Transfer Using Electronic Media
Knowledge
Skill Development
Why Have Medical Specialists in Child Mental Health?
Dilemmas
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
41 Beginning Research
Introduction: Why Should Clinicians Carry Out Research?
Originating and Developing Research
Formulation and Consultation
Consulting the Literature
Deciding on Measures
Developing Evaluations of Practice
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Index