Medicinal Plants: Biodiversity, Biotechnology and Conservation

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Biodiversity and Endangered Species of Medicinal Plants
Chapter 1: The Current Status of Population Extinction and Biodiversity Crisis of Medicinal Plants
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of Medicinal Plants Biodiversity
1.3 Biodiversity Crisis
1.4 Biodiversity Crisis of Medicinal Plants
1.5 Major Drivers of Medicinal Plant Biodiversity Crisis
1.5.1 Overexploitation of Preferred Species as a Potential Driver
1.5.2 Destruction of Habitat and Habitat Fragmentation as a Potential Driver
1.5.3 Invasive Species as a Potential Driver
1.5.4 Pollution as a Potential Driver
1.5.5 Changes in Land Use as a Potential Driver
1.5.6 Biotrade as a Potential Driver
1.5.7 Natural Disasters as a Potential Driver
1.5.8 Loss of Pollinators as a Potential Driver
1.5.9 Climate Change as a Potential Driver
1.5.10 Diseases and Pests Outbreak as a Potential Driver
1.5.11 Monoculture as a Potential Driver
1.5.12 Technological Innovations as a Potential Driver
1.6 Role of IUCN and IUCN Red List to Fight Against Biodiversity Loss
1.7 Conservation Strategies Available to Combat Current Biodiversity Crisis
1.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Medicinal Plants and Bioactive Phytochemical Diversity: A Fountainhead of Potential Drugs Against Human Diseases
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Distributions and Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants
2.3 Phytochemical Diversity in Medicinal Plants
2.3.1 Alkaloids
2.3.2 Phenolic Compounds
2.3.3 Terpenes
2.4 Discovery of Phytochemicals
2.4.1 Selection of Candidate Plants for Screening
2.4.2 Authentication of Plant or Plant Parts
2.4.3 Pre-extraction Preparation of Plant Samples
2.4.4 Extraction of Phytochemicals
2.4.5 Isolation and Purification of Phytochemicals
2.4.6 Identification and Characterization of Phytochemicals
2.5 Impacts of Phytochemicals on Ethnomedicine and Traditional System of Medicine
2.6 Impact of Phytochemicals on Modern Drug Discovery
2.7 Some Natural Bioactive Phytochemicals
2.8 Phytochemical-Derived Semi-synthetic Drugs
2.9 Harmonization Between Biodiversity, Ecosystem, and Human Health
2.10 Future Perspective
References
Chapter 3: Threats and Opportunities for Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Brazilian Atlantic Forest Based on the Knowled...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Study Area: The Brazilian Atlantic Forest
3.3 Methods
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 Traditional and Local Knowledge on Medicinal Plants in Atlantic Forest
3.4.2 Threatened Species
3.4.3 Exotic Species and the Threat of Invasive Species
3.4.4 Protected Areas, Traditional Territories, and the Conservation of Medicinal Species in the Atlantic Forest
3.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Climate Change Impact on Medicinal Plants: An Insight from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Nature of the IUCN Red List Category and Criteria
4.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Medicinal Plants
4.4 The Use of Medicinal Plants Impacted by Climate Change
4.5 Habitat and Distribution of Medicinal Plants Impacted by Climate Change
4.6 Conservation Status of Medicinal Plants Impacted by Climate Change
4.7 Conservation Actions
4.8 Conclusion and Opportunities for the Future
References
Chapter 5: Securing Conservation Status of Paris polyphylla, a Medicinally Important Plant of the Indian Himalayan Region
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Botanical Description of Paris polyphylla
5.3 Habitat and Distribution of Paris polyphylla
5.4 Ethnobotany
5.5 Pharmacological Activities
5.6 Conservation Initiatives
5.6.1 Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM) Studies
5.6.2 Conventional Methods
5.6.3 Biotechnological Methods
5.7 Research Gaps, Opportunities and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 6: Endophytic Fungal Diversity in Solanaceous Medicinal Plants and Their Beneficial Impact
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Impact of Endophytes on Medicinal Plants
6.3 Applications of Endophytes in Biotechnology
6.4 Importances of Medicinal Plants of Solanaceae
6.5 Diversity of Fungal Endophytes Associated with the Family Solanaceae
6.6 Beneficial Impacts of Fungal Endophytes from Solanaceous Medicinal Plants
6.6.1 Plant Growth Promotion
6.6.2 Biocontrol Activity
6.6.3 Bioactive Compound Production
6.6.4 Pharmacological Activities
6.6.5 Heavy Metal Stress Amelioration and Bioremediation Ability
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Genetic Studies on Threatened Medicinal Plants of Brazil: Mind the Gap!
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Genetic Studies of Threatened Species in Brazil: Identifying Gaps
7.3 Threatened Medicinal Plants from Brazil: Examples of Studies
7.3.1 Aniba rosaeodora Ducke (Lauraceae)
7.3.2 Carapichea ipecacuanha (Brot.) L. Andersson (Rubiaceae)
7.3.3 Colletia paradoxa (Spreng.) Escal. (Rhamnaceae)
7.3.4 Hesperozygis ringens (Benth.) Epling (Lamiaceae)
7.3.5 Paubrasilia echinata (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C. Lima & G.P. Lewis (Fabaceae)
7.3.6 Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf ex Wardlew. (Rutaceae)
7.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Medicinal Plants of North-East India: Biodiversity and Their Ethnomedicinal Values
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biodiversity of North-East India
8.3 Diversity of Medicinal Plants and Their Uses
8.3.1 Banana (Family: Musaceae)
8.3.2 Citrus (Family: Rutaceae)
8.3.3 Orchids (Family: Orchidaceae)
8.3.4 Hedychium (Family: Zingiberaceae)
8.4 Over-collected and Threatened Medicinal Plants of North-East India
8.5 Threats and Conservation
8.6 Conclusion
References
Part II: Conservation of Medicinal Plants
Chapter 9: Strategies for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Distribution in India
9.3 Medicinal Plants at Threat
9.4 Conservation Need
9.5 Strategies to Conservation
9.5.1 In Situ Conservation
9.5.2 Ex Situ Conservation
9.5.2.1 Education
9.5.2.2 Growing Medicinal Plant Species
9.5.2.3 Policies
9.5.2.4 Trade/Organizations
9.5.2.5 Conservation Status Assessment
9.5.2.6 Sustainable Use
9.5.2.7 Agricultural Practices
9.6 Biosynthetic Approaches for Medicinal Molecules
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Scientific Databases for Conservation of Medicinal Plants
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definition of Scientific Database
10.3 Global Biodiversity Database Resources for Conservation
10.4 Scientific Databases of Medicinal Plants
10.5 Databases for Medicinal Plant Conservation
10.5.1 Developing a New Database for Medicinal Plant Conservation
10.5.2 Challenges in Developing a New Database for Medicinal Plant Conservation
10.5.3 Role of Scientific Databases for Conservation: Case of Indonesian Medicinal Plant Database
10.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: International Trade of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs)
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The History of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants´ (MAPs´) Trade
11.3 The MAPs´ Trade Today
11.4 MAPs for Human Welfare
11.5 Source and Supply
11.6 MAPs´ Conservation
References
Chapter 12: Inventorization of Ecology, Ethnobotany, and Conservation Status of Dactylorhiza hatagirea: Problems, Progress, an...
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Botanical Attributes
12.2.1 Botany and Taxonomy
12.2.2 Distribution Patterns, Habitat Ecology, and Diversity
12.2.3 Life Cycles and Challenges
12.3 Propagation and Multiplication Approach
12.4 Reproductive Barriers and Genetic Diversity
12.5 Phytochemistry
12.6 Ethnopharmacological Relevance
12.7 Threats to the Species
12.8 Research Gap
12.9 Conservation Challenge and Future Perceptive
12.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants
13.1 Use of the Plant Resource
13.2 Sustainable Use of Biodiversity
13.3 Atlantic Forest as a Source of New Biologically Active Substances
13.4 Bioprospecting
13.5 Adding Value to Biodiversity Products
13.6 Fiscalization
13.7 Biological Activity
13.8 Essential Oils
13.9 Seasonality
13.10 Socioeconomic Approaches
13.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 14: Traditional Practices of Ethnomedicinal Plants in the North-Eastern Region of India and Their Conservation for Sus...
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Ethnomedicinal Plants of the North-Eastern States: Botanical Description, Distribution, and Their Traditional Practices o...
14.2.1 Allium hookeri
14.2.2 Capsicum annuum L.
14.2.3 Curcuma amada Roxb
14.2.4 Alpinia galanga
14.2.5 Curcuma caesia Roxb
14.2.6 Haematocarpus validus
14.2.7 Houttuynia cordata Thumb
14.2.8 Polygonum posumbu Buch-Ham. Ex D. Don
14.2.9 Meriandra bengalensis
14.2.10 Zanthoxylum armatum DC
14.2.11 Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Mabb
14.3 Needs for Conservation
14.4 Conservation Methods
14.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Occurrence and Diversity of Major Naphthoquinones in Higher Plants: Their Distribution and Conservation Strategies
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Bioactivity of Naphthoquinones
15.2.1 Mechanism of Action
15.2.2 Anticancer Activity
15.2.3 Antimicrobial Activity
15.2.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity
15.3 Lawson
15.4 Plumbagin
15.5 Juglone
15.6 Lapachol
15.7 Shikonin and Alkannin
15.8 Diversity and Conservation of Naphthoquinone-Containing Plants
15.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Astragalus fridae: Genetic Source, Applications, and Conservation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 In Situ Conservation of the Wild Relatives of Cultivated Plants
16.3 Astragalus L. Phytochemistry
16.3.1 The Biological Processes Involved in the Genus Astragalus
16.3.1.1 Activity That Reduces Inflammation
16.3.1.2 Activity Against Cancer
16.3.1.3 Activity Concerning Cardioprotection
16.3.1.4 Antidiabetic
16.3.1.5 Antioxidant Capacity and Activity
16.3.1.6 Anti-Aging
16.4 Astragalus fridae: A Species That Is Threatened with Extinction
16.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Tinospora cordifolia as a Potential Candidate for Health Care of Post-Menopausal Women
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Tinospora cordifolia and Its Effect on Vasomotor Symptoms
17.3 Management of Sleep and Mood Disorders with T. cordifolia in Menopausal Women
17.4 Management of Menopause-Driven Metabolic and Liver Dysfunctions with T. cordifolia
17.5 T. cordifolia and Management of Osteoporosis in Menopausal Women
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: The Potential Role of Medicinal Plants, Traditional Herbal Medicines, and Formulations to Overcome SARS-CoV-2 Indu...
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Common Features of SARS-CoV-2
18.3 Current Status of Global SARS-CoV-2 Therapeutic and Associated Problems
18.4 The Potential Role of Medicinal Plants to Treat COVID-19
18.5 Some Medicinal Plant-Based Ethnobotanical Study Related to COVID-19
18.6 In Silico Studies of Medicinal Plants, Traditional Herbal Medicine, and Their Phytochemicals
18.7 In Vitro Studies of Medicinal Plant Extract, Traditional Herbal Medicine, and Formulation Against COVID-19
18.8 Clinical Trials and Observational Studies
18.8.1 Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine and COVID-19
18.8.2 Traditional Indian Medicine and COVID-19
18.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and its Therapeutic Uses in the Traditional Healthcare System
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Prevalence of Use
19.3 Nature of Bioactive Compounds
19.3.1 Saponins
19.3.2 Terpenoids
19.3.3 Anthraquinones
19.4 Phytochemicals and Human Gut Flora
19.5 Use of Traditional Healthcare Systems
19.6 Relation with Unani and Ayurvedic Science
19.7 Relation with Homeopathic Medicine
19.8 Use of Plants by Animals
References
Part III: Conservation of Medicinal Plants by Biotechnology
Chapter 20: In Vitro Conservation and Propagation of Endangered Ethno-Medicinal Orchids from the Northeast Region of India
20.1 Introduction
20.2 History of Medicinal Orchids
20.3 Biotechnological Intervention for Conservation of Orchids
20.4 Medicinal Orchids of Northeast Region
20.4.1 Acampe
20.4.1.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.1.2 Phytochemical
20.4.1.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.2 Aerides
20.4.2.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.2.2 Phytochemical
20.4.2.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.3 Anoectochilus
20.4.3.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.3.2 Phytochemical
20.4.3.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.4 Arundina
20.4.4.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.4.2 Phytochemical
20.4.4.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.5 Bulbophyllum
20.4.5.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.5.2 Phytochemical
20.4.5.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.6 Calanthe
20.4.6.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.6.2 Phytochemical
20.4.6.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.7 Coelogyne
20.4.7.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.7.2 Phytochemical
20.4.7.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.8 Cremastra
20.4.8.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.8.2 Phytochemical
20.4.8.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.9 Cymbidium
20.4.9.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.9.2 Phytochemical
20.4.9.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.10 Dactylorhiza
20.4.10.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.10.2 Phytochemical
20.4.10.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.11 Dendrobium
20.4.11.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.11.2 Phytochemical
20.4.11.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.12 Eria
20.4.12.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.12.2 Phytochemical
20.4.12.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.13 Eulophia
20.4.13.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.13.2 Phytochemical
20.4.13.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.14 Geodorum
20.4.14.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.14.2 Phytochemical
20.4.14.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.15 Goodyera
20.4.15.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.15.2 Phytochemical
20.4.15.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.16 Habenaria
20.4.16.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.16.2 Phytochemical
20.4.16.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.17 Liparis
20.4.17.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.17.2 Phytochemical
20.4.17.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.18 Luisia
20.4.18.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.18.2 Phytochemical
20.4.18.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.19 Malaxis
20.4.19.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.19.2 Phytochemical
20.4.19.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.20 Nervilia
20.4.20.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.20.2 Phytochemical
20.4.20.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.21 Oberonia
20.4.21.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.21.2 Phytochemical
20.4.21.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.22 Papilionanthe
20.4.22.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.22.2 Phytochemical
20.4.22.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.23 Pecteilis
20.4.23.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.23.2 Phytochemical
20.4.23.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.24 Phaius
20.4.24.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.24.2 Phytochemical
20.4.24.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.25 Pholidota
20.4.25.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.25.2 Phytochemical
20.4.25.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.26 Pleione
20.4.26.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.26.2 Phytochemical
20.4.26.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.27 Rhynchostylis
20.4.27.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.27.2 Phytochemical
20.4.27.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.28 Satyrium
20.4.28.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.28.2 Phytochemical
20.4.28.3 Tissue Culture
20.4.29 Vanda
20.4.29.1 Ethno-Medicinal
20.4.29.2 Phytochemical
20.4.29.3 Tissue Culture
20.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 21: Artificial Seed Production and Cryopreservation Technology for Conservation of Plant Germplasm with Special Refere...
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Artificial Seed Technology
21.2.1 Artificial Seed Concept
21.2.2 Requirements for Artificial Seed Production
21.2.2.1 Explant Materials
Artificially Desiccated Seeds
Artificially Hydrated Seeds
Additional Explant Materials
21.2.2.2 Adjuvant Materials and Artificial Seed Gelling Agents
21.3 Cryopreservation
21.3.1 Techniques for Cryopreservation
21.3.2 Encapsulation-Dehydration
21.3.3 Vitrification
21.3.4 Encapsulation-Vitrification
21.3.5 Droplet Vitrification
21.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Biotechnological Studies on Nasturtium officinale (Watercress): an Endangered Species of Significant Relevance in ...
22.1 Biotechnology of Endangered Plants
22.2 N. officinale: Botanical and Chemical Characteristics and Relevance in Phytotherapy, Cosmetology, and Food Industry
22.3 Micropropagation as the Tool for N. officinale Protection
22.4 Biotechnological Studies on N. officinale Agar Cultures
22.4.1 Initiation of Microshoot Cultures
22.4.2 Biomass Increases and Survival of Cultures
22.4.3 Production of GSLs
22.4.4 Production of Polyphenol Compounds
22.4.5 Antioxidant Potential
22.5 Biotechnological Studies on N. officinale Agitated Cultures
22.5.1 Biomass Increases and Survival of Cultures
22.5.2 Production of GSLs
22.5.3 Production of Polyphenol Compounds
22.5.4 Antioxidant Potential
22.6 Influence of Light Conditions on Secondary Metabolite Production in N. officinale Agar Cultures
22.6.1 Biomass Increases and Survival of Cultures
22.6.2 Production of GSLs
22.6.3 Production of Polyphenols
22.6.4 Antioxidant Potential
22.7 Evaluation of Results with the Parent Plant Material and Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Isatis tinctoria L. (Woad): Cultivation, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Biotechnology, and Utilization
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Morphology
23.3 Natural Habitats and Ecology
23.4 Studies on Field Cultivation
23.5 Chemical Composition
23.5.1 Alkaloids
23.5.2 Flavonoids
23.5.3 Phenolic Acids
23.5.4 Mono- and Oligolignols
23.5.5 Glucosinolates
23.5.6 Volatile Components
23.5.7 Other Compounds
23.6 Pharmacology: Medicinal and Health-Promoting Properties
23.6.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity
23.6.2 Analgesic Activity
23.6.3 Antioxidant Activity
23.6.4 Antiviral, Antibacterial, and Antifungal Activities
23.6.5 Anticancer Activity
23.6.6 Neuroprotective Property
23.6.7 NO Inhibiting Activity
23.7 Significance in the Industry
23.7.1 Isatis tinctoria for Indigo Dye Production
23.7.2 Isatis tinctoria in the Cosmetic Industry
23.8 Biotechnological Studies
23.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: Tissue Culture Techniques to Conserve Endangered Medicinal Plants with Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activities
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Factors Affecting and Threatening Plant Populations
24.2.1 Habitat Loss
24.2.2 Invasive Species
24.2.3 Pollution
24.2.4 Overexploitation
24.2.5 Climate Change Associated with Global Warming
24.3 Types of Tissue Culture
24.3.1 Callus Culture
24.3.2 Organ Culture
24.3.3 Single-Cell Culture
24.3.4 Embryo Culture
24.3.5 Anther Culture
24.3.6 Pollen Culture
24.3.7 Somatic Embryogenesis
24.3.8 Protoplast Culture
24.3.9 Shoot Tip and Meristem Culture
24.4 Plant Tissue Culture Media
24.5 Stress Factors in Plant Tissue Culture
24.6 Micropropagation of Medicinal Plants
24.6.1 Case Study 1
24.6.1.1 Distribution of Withania somnifera
24.6.1.2 Habitat
24.6.1.3 Morphological Description
24.6.1.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.1.5 Pharmacology
24.6.1.6 Micropropagation
24.6.2 Case Study 2
24.6.2.1 Distribution of Zhumeria majdae
24.6.2.2 Habitat
24.6.2.3 Morphological Description
24.6.2.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.2.5 Pharmacology
24.6.2.6 Micropropagation
24.6.3 Case Study 3
24.6.3.1 Distribution of Picrorhiza kurroa
24.6.3.2 Habitat
24.6.3.3 Morphological Description
24.6.3.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.3.5 Pharmacology
24.6.3.6 Micropropagation
24.6.4 Case Study 4
24.6.4.1 Distribution of Ginkgo biloba
24.6.4.2 Habitat
24.6.4.3 Morphological Description
24.6.4.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.4.5 Pharmacology
24.6.4.6 Micropropagation
24.6.5 Case Study 5
24.6.5.1 Distribution of Swertia chirata
24.6.5.2 Habitat
24.6.5.3 Morphological Description
24.6.5.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.5.5 Pharmacology
24.6.5.6 Micropropagation
24.6.6 Case Study 6
24.6.6.1 Distribution of Gymnema sylvestre
24.6.6.2 Habitat
24.6.6.3 Morphological Description
24.6.6.4 Phytochemicals
24.6.6.5 Pharmacology
24.6.6.6 Micropropagation
24.7 Conclusion and Prospects
References
Chapter 25: Insights into the In Vitro Approaches for the Production of Secondary Metabolites Towards The Conservation of Medi...
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Orchids: The Magnificent Plants in Plant Kingdom
25.3 Medicinal Orchids: The Source of Secondary Metabolites
25.4 Plant Tissue Culture: A Continuous Source of Secondary Metabolites´ Accumulation
25.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Biotechnological Approaches for Ex Situ Conservation of Medicinal Plants
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Somatic Embryogenesis
26.3 Somatic Embryogenesis in Conservation of Medicinal Plants
26.3.1 Explants in Somatic Embryogenesis
26.3.2 Phytohormones in Somatic Embryogenesis
26.3.3 Light and Somatic Embryogenesis
26.3.4 Amino Acids and Other Biochemical Factors in Somatic Embryogenesis
26.4 Artificial Seed Production
26.4.1 Explant Selection
26.4.2 Encapsulation Agents and Synthesis Conditions
26.4.3 Factors Affecting Storage and Germination
26.4.4 Germination and Acclimatization
26.4.5 Post-storage Viability and Stability of Regenerants
26.4.6 Importance/Limitations and Applications Related to Conservation of Medicinal Plants
26.5 Cryopreservation
26.5.1 Factors Affecting Cryopreservation
26.5.1.1 Type of Plant
26.5.1.2 Age and Size of the Explants
26.5.1.3 Genotype
26.5.1.4 Type of cells, Tissues, and Organs
26.5.1.5 Cell Density
26.5.1.6 Growth Phases
26.5.1.7 Choice of CPA
26.5.1.8 The Technique of Cryopreservation Selected
26.5.2 Techniques of Cryopreservation
26.5.2.1 Programmed Freezing
26.5.2.2 Vitrification
26.5.2.3 Dehydration
26.5.2.4 Cryopreservation by Encapsulation
26.5.2.5 Droplet Vitrification
26.5.3 Determination of Survival and Assessment of Genetic Stability Post Cryopreservation
26.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Conservation of Medicinal Plants by Tissue Culture Techniques
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Importance of Medicinal Plants and Their Conservation
27.3 Conservation Strategies
27.3.1 In Situ Conservation
27.3.2 Ex Situ Conservation
27.3.3 Cultivation Practice
27.4 Plant Tissue Culture
27.4.1 Medicinal Plant Conservation by Tissue Culture
27.4.1.1 Medium-Term Conservation Through Slow Growth Method
27.4.1.2 Long-Term Conservation Through Cryopreservation
References
Chapter 28: Current Status of Metabolic Engineering of Medicinal Plants for Production of Plant-Derived Secondary Metabolites
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Systems Used for Metabolic Engineering
28.2.1 Prokaryotic Microbial System for Metabolic Engineering
28.2.2 Eukaryotic Microbial System for Metabolic Engineering
28.2.3 Eukaryotic Plant Cell-Based System for Metabolic Engineering
28.3 General Steps and Techniques Used in Metabolic Engineering
28.3.1 Discovery of Unknown Enzymes of SM Production Pathway
28.3.2 Selection of Suitable Host
28.3.3 The Heterologous Reconstitution of Plant Biosynthetic Pathways
28.3.4 Metabolic Pathway and Flux Optimization
28.3.5 Scale-Up Production
28.3.6 Downstream Process
28.4 Common Strategies Applied in Metabolic Engineering
28.4.1 Redirecting Flux by Overexpression of Single Gene
28.4.2 Shift in Metabolic Flux by Overexpression of Multiple Genes
28.4.3 Shift in Metabolic Flux by Gene Silencing
28.4.4 Over- or Downregulation of Transcription Factors
28.4.5 Transporter Engineering-Mediated Metabolic Channeling to Secondary Sites
28.4.6 Modification in Cis-Regulatory Elements
28.4.7 Substrate Channeling
28.4.8 Signal Sequence Tagging Improves Localization of Enzyme
28.4.9 Cofactor Manipulation
28.5 Secondary Metabolite Production in Metabolic Engineered HRC of Medicinal Plants
28.5.1 Homologous Overexpression of Single Gene of SM Biosynthetic Pathway
28.5.2 Heterologous Expression of Single Gene of SM Biosynthetic Pathway
28.5.3 Homologous Expression of Single Transcription Factor
28.5.4 Heterologous Expression of Single Transcription Factor
28.5.5 Expression of Multiple Genes of SM Biosynthetic Pathway
28.5.6 Gene Silencing
28.6 Secondary Metabolite Production in Metabolic Engineered Callus and Cell Suspension Culture of Medicinal Plants
28.7 Secondary Metabolite Production in Metabolic Engineered Transgenic Medicinal Plants
28.7.1 Homologous Expression of Single or Multiple Gene(s) of SM Biosynthetic Pathway
28.7.2 Heterologous Expression of Single or Multiple Gene(s) of SM Biosynthetic Pathway
28.7.3 Over- or Downregulation of Transcription Factors
28.7.4 Shift in Metabolic Flux by Gene Silencing
28.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 29: Stationary, Agitated, and Bioreactor Cultures of Verbena officinalis L. (Common Vervain): A Potential Rich Source ...
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Botanical Characteristic
29.2.1 Synonyms and Common Names in Different Languages
29.2.2 Species Morphology
29.2.3 Distribution of Natural Habitats and Ecological Requirements
29.3 Chemical Composition
29.4 Medicinal Properties: Traditional Medicine and Official Phytotherapy
29.5 Significance in Cosmetology
29.6 Biotechnological Studies
29.6.1 Micropropagation Protocols
29.6.2 Endogenous Production of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds
29.6.2.1 Undifferentiated In Vitro Cultures
The Effect of PGRs and Light Conditions (White Fluorescent Light and Darkness)
The Effect of Light Conditions (Monochromatic LED Lights, White Fluorescent Light and Darkness)
The Effect of Different Types of In Vitro Cultures
29.6.2.2 Microshoot Cultures
29.6.3 The Production of Essential Oil
29.7 Summary: Evaluation of Our Biotechnological Studies
29.7.1 Undifferentiated In Vitro Cultures
29.7.2 Microshoot Cultures
29.8 Conclusions and Prospects
References