Meat and Meat Replacements: An Interdisciplinary Assessment of Current Status and Future Directions

Front Cover
MEAT AND MEAT REPLACEMENTS
MEAT AND MEAT REPLACEMENTS
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
1 -
Introduction
1 - Introduction: general overview of meat analogues and meat replacers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical perspective of meat consumption
1.2.1 Environmental impact of meat consumption
1.2.2 Sustainable alternatives
1.3 New trends in meat products
1.3.1 Meat analogues
1.3.2 Meat replacers and protein extenders
1.4 Considerations to develop new meat products
1.4.1 Quality
1.4.2 Nutritional value
1.4.3 Consumer acceptance
1.4.4 Environmental impact and economic value
1.5 Conclusions
References
2 - Cellular agriculture and human dietary evolution-a view from the Anthropocene
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Prehistoric evidence and narratives about the origins of hominin carnivory
2.3 Narratives of complexity in the diet of prehistoric Homo sapiens
2.4 Exploring cellular agriculture as the future of carnivory in the anthropocene
2.5 Conclusion
References
2 -
Meat and meat replacements food science
3 - Meat and meat products: animal species, products, processing, quality, and shelf life
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Global meat production and animal species
3.3 Processing of meat products
3.3.1 Burgers
3.3.2 Marinated cuts
3.3.3 Sausages (fresh, fermented, and cooked)
3.3.4 Dry-cured meats (ham, lacón, loin, and cecina)
3.3.5 Liver pâté
3.3.6 Corned beef
3.3.7 Nuggets
3.4 Quality decay and shelf life of meat products
3.5 Conclusion and future perspective
Acknowledgments
References
4 - Consumer response to red meat—implementing strategies during animal production or postmortem processing to impr ...
4.1 Antemortem
4.1.1 Genetics/breed
4.1.1.1 Beef
4.1.1.2 Lamb
4.1.1.3 Pork
4.1.2 Diet/nutrition
4.1.2.1 Beef
4.1.2.2 Lamb
4.1.3 Growth promotants
4.1.3.1 Beef
4.1.3.2 Pork
4.1.4 Animal age
4.1.4.1 Beef
4.1.4.2 Lamb
4.1.5 Grading systems—using marbling to predict eating quality
4.1.5.1 Beef
4.1.5.2 Lamb
4.1.5.3 Pork
4.2 Postmortem
4.2.1 Aging
4.2.1.1 Length of postmortem aging
4.2.1.2 Dry versus wet aging
4.2.2 Enhancement
4.2.3 Packaging
4.2.4 Degree of doneness and cooking method
References
3 -
Meat and meat replacement nutrition
5 - The nutritional characteristics and health-oriented advances of meat and meat products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Strategies to improve the health properties of meat and meat products
5.2.1 Improvement in the nutritional quality of meat by modifying the animals' diet
5.2.2 Sodium reduction in meat products
5.2.3 Fat reduction and modification of the lipid profile of meat products
5.2.4 Phosphate and nitrite reduction in meat products
5.2.5 Incorporation of compounds with health benefits
5.3 Final remarks
Acknowledgments
References
6 - Nutritional aspects and trends of meat replacement products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nutritional considerations and impacts of reducing or removing meat from the diet
6.2.1 General overview
6.2.2 Carbohydrates
6.2.3 Lipids
6.2.4 Proteins
6.2.5 Vitamins
6.2.6 Minerals
6.2.7 Water
6.3 Global market trends of meat replacement food products
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 - Nutritional and health value of plant-based meat alternatives
7.1 A new market
7.2 Value of legumes
7.3 Processed plant protein foods from the past
7.4 A new focus
7.5 Are the new meat alternatives healthy and nutritious?
7.6 Nutritional comparisons
7.7 Analyses of wide selection of meat alternatives
7.8 Are meat alternatives ultra-processed foods
7.9 Composition of meat alternatives
7.10 Concerns regarding sustainability
7.11 How do meat alternatives compare?
7.12 Life cycle assessment
7.13 Cultured meat
7.14 What of the future?
7.15 Summary
References
4 -
Ethical considerations for meats and meat replacements
8 - Ethics in meat production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Is the consumption of meat morally justified?
8.3 How do beliefs, especially religious beliefs, influence moral attitudes toward the consumption of meat?
8.4 The value of human beings
8.5 The right of food security
8.6 Is it morally justified to sacrifice the life of animals for human needs?
8.7 Is welfare the right answer to animal rights claims?
8.8 Is meat production environmentally sustainable?
8.9 Conclusions
References
9 - Ethical aspects of meat alternative products
9.1 The issues of meat production in a climate-changing world
9.1.1 Climate change: a global overview
9.1.2 Meat production and carbon footprint
9.1.3 Meat production and alternative meats
9.2 Alternative meat products: how to produce meat without damaging the planet
9.3 Production of alternative meat products
9.3.1 Sustainable meat production
9.3.1.1 Extensive meat
9.3.1.2 Reduced carbon footprint meat
9.3.1.3 Local meat
9.3.2 Organic meat
9.3.3 Cultured meat
9.4 Consumer acceptance of alternative meat products
9.4.1 Climate change and the environment
9.4.2 Animal welfare
9.4.3 Food safety
9.4.4 Naturalness
9.4.5 Sensory quality
9.4.6 Food neophobia
9.5 Environmental and ethical aspects
References
10 - Ethics of meat alternatives
10.1 The case for meat alternatives
10.1.1 Slaughter-based meat
10.1.1.1 Animals
10.1.1.2 Environment
10.1.1.3 In defense of slaughter-based meat?
10.1.2 Plant-based systems
10.2 Plant-based meat
10.3 Cultivated meat
10.4 Insects
10.5 Concluding remarks
References
11 - The ethics of consuming meat
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Consuming factory-farmed meat
11.2.1 Causal impotence?
11.2.2 Complicity
11.2.3 Offsetting
11.3 Humane farming
11.4 Hunting
References
5 -
Consumer response to meats and meat replacements
12 - Meat alternatives: are we losing our taste for eating animals?
12.1 The case against factory farming
12.1.1 Environmental
12.1.2 Public health
12.1.3 Animal suffering
12.2 Public policy turns away from meat
12.2.1 Dietary guidelines
12.2.1.1 Canada
12.2.1.2 Sweden
12.2.1.3 Netherlands
12.2.1.4 China
12.2.2 Agricultural subsidies
12.2.2.1 The European Union
12.2.2.2 United Kingdom
12.2.3 Public food outlets
12.2.3.1 France
12.2.3.2 Denmark
12.2.4 Meat tax
12.2.4.1 Germany
12.2.5 Potential for backlash without alternatives
12.3 The rise of alternative proteins
12.3.1 Whole plant foods
12.3.2 Entomophagy
12.3.3 Plant-based meat
12.3.4 Cultured meat
12.4 How society will change its mind
12.4.1 The social construction of “edible” and “ethical”
12.4.2 Meat and motivated reasoning
12.4.3 The shifting pros and cons of meat avoidance
12.4.4 Reaching a new normal
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 - Consumer perceptions of different protein alternatives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Development of consumer view to protein sources in food
13.3 Dimensions where meat and alternatives vary
13.4 Mimicking meat
13.4.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
13.4.1.1 Analogues
13.4.1.2 Nonanalogues
13.4.1.3 Hybrids
13.5 Level of processing
13.5.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
13.5.1.1 Unprocessed
13.5.1.2 Minimally processed
13.5.1.3 Medium levels of processing; processed culinary ingredients and processed foods
13.5.1.4 Highly processed
13.5.2 What are consumer issues around level of processing?
13.5.2.1 Naturalness and technophobia
13.5.2.2 Trust in food industry
13.6 Plant-based versus animal-based protein the origin
13.6.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
13.6.2 What are consumer issues on this dimension and what underlying theories relate to this
13.7 Novelty of protein origin
13.7.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
13.7.2 What are consumer issues on this dimension and what underlying theories relate to this
13.8 Looking at protein from different points of view
13.8.1 Pulses
13.8.2 Plant-based meat analogues
13.8.3 Insects
13.8.4 Cultured meat
13.9 General reflection and how to go into the future
References
6 -
Environmental effects of meats and meat replacements
14 - Environmental impacts of meat and meat replacements
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Life cycle assessment of food
14.2.1 Purpose
14.2.2 Principles
14.2.3 Challenges
14.3 Environmental impacts of meat
14.3.1 Impact variability of meat
14.3.2 Impact hotspots
14.3.3 Opportunities for improvement
14.4 Environmental impacts of conventional meat replacements
14.4.1 Seafood
14.4.1.1 Impacts compared to meat
14.4.1.2 Impact hotspots
14.4.1.3 Opportunities for improvement
14.4.1.4 Gaps
14.4.2 Eggs
14.4.2.1 Impacts compared to meat
14.4.2.2 Impact hotspots
14.4.2.3 Trade-offs between production systems
14.4.2.4 Development over time
14.4.2.5 Opportunities for improvement
14.4.3 Tofu and tempeh
14.4.3.1 Impacts compared to meat
14.4.3.2 Impact hotspots
14.4.3.3 Differences between production systems
14.4.3.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.4.4 Pulses and nuts
14.4.4.1 Impacts compared to meat
14.4.4.2 Impact hotspots
14.4.4.3 Opportunities for improvement
14.5 Environmental impacts of emerging meat replacements
14.5.1 Plant-based meat analogs
14.5.1.1 Definition
14.5.1.2 Impacts compared to meat
14.5.1.3 Impact hotspots
14.5.1.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.5.1.5 Gaps
14.5.2 Algae
14.5.2.1 Definition
14.5.2.2 Impacts compared to meat
14.5.2.3 Impact hotspots
14.5.2.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.5.2.5 Gaps
14.5.3 Mycoprotein
14.5.3.1 Definition
14.5.3.2 Impacts compared to meat
14.5.3.3 Impact hotspots
14.5.3.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.5.3.5 Gaps
14.5.4 Insects
14.5.4.1 Definition
14.5.4.2 Impacts compared to meat
14.5.4.3 Impact hotspots
14.5.4.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.5.4.5 Gaps
14.5.5 Cultured meat
14.5.5.1 Definition
14.5.5.2 Impacts compared to meat
14.5.5.3 Impact hotspots
14.5.5.4 Opportunities for improvement
14.5.5.5 Gaps
14.6 Conclusions and outlook
References
Index
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