McKnight's Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
CONTENTS
GEOSCIENCE ANIMATION LIBRARY
GEOSCIENCE VIDEO LIBRARY
PREFACE
ABOUT OUR SUSTAINABILITY INITIATIVES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
BOOK AND MasteringGeography WALKTHROUGH
1 Introduction to Earth
Geography and Science
Studying the World Geographically
The Process of Science
Numbers and Measurement Systems
Environmental Spheres and Earth Systems
Earth’s Environmental Spheres
Earth Systems
Earth and the Solar System
The Solar System
The Size and Shape of Earth
The Geographic Grid—Latitude and Longitude
Latitude
Longitude
Locating Points on the Geographic Grid
Earth–Sun Relations and the Seasons
Earth Movements
The Annual March of the Seasons
Seasonal Transitions
Significance of Seasonal Patterns
Telling Time
Standard Time
International Date Line
Daylight-Saving Time
2 Portraying Earth
Maps and Globes
Maps
Map Scale
Scale Types
Large and Small Map Scales
Map Projections and Properties
Map Projections
Map Properties
Families of Map Projections
Cylindrical Projections
Planar Projections
Conic Projections
Pseudocylindrical Projections
Conveying Information on Maps
Map Essentials
Isolines
Portraying the Three-Dimensional Landscape
GPS—The Global Positioning System
Remote Sensing
Aerial Photographs
Visible Light and Infrared Sensing
FOCUS: Using Remote Sensing Images to Study a Landscape
Thermal Infrared Sensing
Multispectral Remote Sensing
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Tools of the Geographer
3 Introduction to the Atmosphere
Size and Composition of the Atmosphere
Size of Earth's Atmosphere
Development of Earth's Modern Atmosphere
Composition of the Modern Atmosphere
Permanent Gases
Variable Gases
Particulates (Aerosols)
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
Thermal Layers
Pressure
Composition
Human-Induced Atmospheric Change
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Air Pollution
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The UV Index
Energy Production and the Environment
Weather and Climate
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Our Continuing Dependence on Fossil Fuels
The Elements of Weather and Climate
The Controls of Weather and Climate
The Coriolis Effect
4 Insolation and Temperature
The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape
Energy, Heat, and Temperature
Energy
Temperature and Heat
Measuring Temperature
Solar Energy
Electromagnetic Radiation
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Solar Power
Insolation
Basic Warming and Cooling Processes in the Atmosphere
Radiation
Absorption
Reflection
Scattering
Transmission
Conduction
Convection
Advection
Adiabatic Cooling and Warming
Latent Heat
Earth's Solar Radiation Budget
Long-Term Energy Balance
Earth's Energy Budget
Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season
Latitudinal and Seasonal Differences
FOCUS: Monitoring Earth's Radiation Budget
Latitudinal Radiation Balance
Land and Water Temperature Contrasts
Warming of Land and Water
Cooling of Land and Water
Implications
Mechanisms of Global Energy Transfer
Atmospheric Circulation
Oceanic Circulation
Vertical Temperature Patterns
Environmental Lapse Rate
Average Lapse Rate
Temperature Inversions
Global Temperature Patterns
Prominent Controls of Temperature
Seasonal Patterns
Annual Temperature Range
Measuring Earth's Surface Temperature by Satellite
Climate Change and "Global Warming"
Temperature Change During Twentieth Century
Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind
The Impact of Pressure and Wind on the Landscape
The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure
Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure
Mapping Pressure with Isobars
The Nature of Wind
Direction of Movement
Wind Speed
Cyclones and Anticyclones
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Wind Power
Idealized Circulation Patterns
Seven Components of the General Circulation
Subtropical Highs
Trade Winds
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
The Westerlies
Polar Highs
Polar Easterlies
Polar Front
Vertical Patterns of the General Circulation
Modifications of the General Circulation
Seasonal Variations in Location
Monsoons
Localized Wind Systems
Sea and Land Breezes
Valley and Mountain Breezes
Katabatic Winds
Foehn and Chinook Winds
Santa Ana Winds
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Effects of El Niño
Normal Pattern
El Niño Pattern
La Niña
Causes of ENSO
Teleconnections
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Forecasting El Niño
Other Multiyear Atmospheric and Oceanic Cycles
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
The North Atlantic Oscillation and the Arctic Oscillation
6 Atmospheric Moisture
The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape
The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Water Molecule
Important Properties of Water
Phase Changes of Water
Latent Heat
Importance of Latent Heat in the Atmosphere
Water Vapor and Evaporation
Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Measures of Humidity
Actual Water Vapor Content
Relative Humidity
Related Humidity Concepts
Condensation
The Condensation Process
Adiabatic Processes
Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Rates
Significance of Adiabatic Temperature Changes
Clouds
Classifying Clouds
Fog
Dew
Clouds and Climate Change
Atmospheric Stability
Buoyancy
The Stability of Air
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Global Dimming
Determining Atmospheric Stability
Precipitation
The Processes
Forms of Precipitation
Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation
Convective Lifting
FOCUS: GOES Weather Satellites
Orographic Lifting
Frontal Lifting
Convergent Lifting
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Regions of High Annual Precipitation
Regions of Low Annual Precipitation
Seasonal Precipitation Patterns
Precipitation Variability
Acid Rain
Sources of Acid Precipitation
7 Atmospheric Disturbances
The Impact of Storms on the Landscape
Air Masses
Characteristics
Origin
Classification
Movement and Modification
North American Air Masses
Fronts
Cold Fronts
Warm Fronts
Stationary Fronts
Occluded Fronts
Air Masses, Fronts, and Major Atmospheric Disturbances
Midlatitude Cyclones
Characteristics
Movements
Life Cycle
Weather Changes with the Passing of a Midlatitude Cyclone
FOCUS: Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones
Occurrence and Distribution
Midlatitude Anticyclones
Characteristics
Relationships of Cyclones and Anticyclones
Easterly Waves
Characteristics
Origin
Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes
Categories of Tropical Disturbances
Characteristics
Origin
Movement
Damage and Destruction
Hurricanes and Climate Change
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Lessons of Hurricane Katrina
Localized Severe Weather
Thunderstorms
Tornadoes
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Devastating Tornadoes of 2011
Waterspouts
Severe Storm Watches and Warnings
FOCUS: Wather Radar
8 Climate and Climate Change
Climate Classification
Early Classification Schemes
The Köppen Climate Classification System
Climographs
World Distribution of Major Climate Types
Tropical Humid Climates (Group A)
Tropical Wet Climate (AF)
Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw)
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
Dry Climates (Group B)
Subtropical Desert Climate (BWh)
Midlatitude Desert Climate (BWk)
Mild Midlatitude Climates (Group C)
Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb)
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa, Cwa, Cwb)
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb, Cfc)
Severe Midlatitude Climates (Group D)
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb)
Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd)
Polar and Highland Climates (Groups E and H)
Tundra Climate (ET)
FOCUS: Signs of Climate Change in the Arctic
Ice Cap Climate (EF)
Highland Climate (Group H)
Global Patterns Idealized
Global Climate Change
Determining Climates of the Past
Dendrochronology
Oxygen Isotope Analysis
Ice Cores
Pollen Analysis
Urban Heat Islands
Causes of Long-Term Climate Change
Atmospheric Aerosols
Fluctuations in Solar Output
Variations in Earth–Sun Relations
Greenhouse Gases Concentration
Feedback Mechanisms
The Roles of the Ocean
Anthropogenic Climate Change
Evidence of Current Climate Change
Natural or Anthropogenic Climate Change?
Using Models to Predict Future Climate
Projections of Future Climate
Addressing Climate Change
Mitigating and Adapting
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
9 The Hydrosphere
The Hydrologic Cycle
Surface-to-Air Water Movement
Air-to-Surface Water Movement
Movement On and Beneath Earth's Surface
Residence Times
Energy Transfer in the Hydrologic Cycle
The Oceans
How Many Oceans?
Characteristics of Ocean Waters
Movement of Ocean Waters
Tides
Ocean Currents
Waves
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Permanent Ice—The Cryosphere
Permafrost
Surface Waters
Lakes
Wetlands
Rivers and Streams
Groundwater
Movement and Storage of Underground Water
Zone of Aeration
Zone of Saturation
Zone of Confined Water
Waterless Zone
Groundwater Mining
FOCUS: Monitoring Groundwater Resources from Space
10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere
The Impact of Plants and Animals on the Landscape
The Geographic Approach to the Study of Organisms
Biogeography
The Search for a Meaningful Classification Scheme
Biogeochemical Cycles
The Flow of Energy
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Biofuels
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
The Oxygen Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
Mineral Cycles
Food Chains
Food Pyramids
Pollutants in the Food Chain
Biological Factors and Natural Distributions
Evolutionary Development
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
Migration and Dispersal
Reproductive Success
Population Die-off and Extinction
Plant Succession
Environmental Factors
The Influence of Climate
FOCUS: Bark Beetle Killing Forests in Western North America
Edaphic Influences
Topographic Influences
Wildfire
Environmental Correlations: The Example of Selva
11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna
Ecosystems and Biomes
Ecosystem: A Concept for All Scales
Biome: A Scale for All Biogeographers
Terrestrial Flora
Characteristics of Plants
Floristic Terminology
Environmental Adaptations
Competition and the Inevitability of Change
Spatial Associations of Plants
Vertical Zonation
Local Variations
Terrestrial Fauna
Characteristics of Animals
Kinds of Animals
Environmental Adaptations
FOCUS: Changing Climate Affects Bird Populations
Competition among Animals
Cooperation among Animals
Zoogeographic Regions
The Major Biomes
Tropical Rainforest
Tropical Deciduous Forest
Tropical Scrub
Tropical Savanna
Desert
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub
Midlatitude Grassland
Midlatitude Deciduous Forest
Boreal Forest
Tundra
Human Modification of Natural Distribution Patterns
Physical Removal of Organisms
Habitat Modification
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Rainforest Loss in Brazil
Introduction of Exotic Species
12 Soils
Soil and Regolith
From Regolith to Soil
Soil as a Component of the Landscape
Soil-Forming Factors
The Geologic Factor
The Climatic Factor
The Topographic Factor
The Biological Factor
The Time Factor
Soil Components
Inorganic Materials
Organic Matter
Soil Air
Soil Water
Soil Properties
Color
Texture
Structure
Soil Chemistry
Colloids
Cation Exchange
Acidity/Alkalinity
Soil Profiles
Soil Horizons
Pedogenic Regimes
Laterization
Podzolization
Gleization
Calcification
Salinization
Climate and Pedogenic Regimes
Soil Classification
The Soil Taxonomy
The Mapping Question
Global Distribution of Major Soils
Entisols (Very Little Profile Development)
FOCUS: Using Soil Properties to Decipher Past Environmental Changes
Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features)
Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils)
Gelisols (Cold Soils with Permafrost)
Histosols (Organic Soils on Very Wet Sites)
Aridisols (Soils of Dry Climates)
Vertisols (Swelling and Cracking Clays)
Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands)
Alfisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, High Base Status)
Ultisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, Low Base Status)
Spodosols (Soils of Cool, Forested Zones)
Oxisols (Highly Weathered and Leached)
Distribution of Soils in the United States
13 Introduction to Landform Study
The Structure of Earth
Earth's Hot Interior
The Crust
The Mantle
The Inner and Outer Cores
Plate Tectonics and the Structure of Earth
The Composition of Earth
Minerals
Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Fracking for Natural Gas
The Rock Cycle
Continental and Ocean Floor Rocks
Isostasy
The Study of Landforms
Some Critical Concepts
Internal and External Geomorphic Processes
Uniformitarianism
Geologic Time
Scale and Pattern
An Example of Scale
Pattern and Process in Geomorphology
14 The Internal Processes
The Impact of Internal Processes on the Landscape
From Rigid Earth to Plate Tectonics
Wegener's Continental Drift
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
The Evidence
Seafloor Spreading
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Boundaries
Divergent Boundaries
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
Plate Boundaries Over Geologic Time
The Pacific Ring of Fire
Additions to Plate Tectonic Theory
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
Accreted Terranes
Remaining Questions
Volcanism
Volcano Distribution
Magma Chemistry and Styles of Eruption
Lava Flows
Volcanic Peaks
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanic Gases
Lava Flows
Eruption Column and Ash Fall
Pyroclastic Flows
Volcanic Mudflows (Lahars)
Monitoring Volcanoes
Intrusive Igneous Features
Plutons
Folding
The Process of Folding
Types of Folds
Topographic Features Associated with Folding
Faulting
Types of Faults
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2010 Haiti Earthquake
Landforms Associated with Normal Faulting
Landforms Associated with Strike-Slip Faulting
Earthquakes
Seismic Waves
Earthquake Magnitude
Shaking Intensity
Earthquake Hazards
Complexities of the Internal Processes—Example of the Northern Rockies
FOCUS: Earthquake Prediction
15 Preliminaries to Erosion: Weathering and Mass Wasting
Denudation
The Impact of Weathering and Mass Wasting on the Landscape
Weathering and Rock Openings
Types of Rock Openings
The Importance of Jointing
Weathering Agents
Mechanical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Biological Weathering
Differential Weathering
Climate and Weathering
Mass Wasting
Factors Influencing Mass Wasting
Fall
Slide
Flow
Creep
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The La Conchita Landslides
16 Fluvial Processes
The Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape
Streams and Stream Systems
Streamflow and Overland Flow
Valleys and Interfluves
Drainage Basins
Stream Orders
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Hydropower
Fluvial Erosion and Deposition
Erosion by Overland Flow
Erosion by Streamflow
Transportation
Deposition
Perennial and Intermittent Streams
Floods as Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Stream Channels
Channel Flow
Stream Channel Patterns
Structural Relationships
Consequent and Subsequent Streams
Stream Drainage Patterns
The Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys
Valley Deepening
Valley Widening
Valley Lengthening
Deposition in Valleys
Floodplains
Floodplain Landforms
Modifying Rivers for Flood Control
Flood Control on the Mississippi River
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Changing Mississippi River Delta
Stream Rejuvenation
Theories of Landform Development
Davis's Geomorphic Cycle
Penck's Theory of Crustal Change and Slope Development
Equilibrium Theory
17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes
The Impact of Solution Processes on the Landscape
Solution and Precipitation
Caverns and Related Features
Speleothems
Karst Topography
Karst Landforms
Hydrothermal Features
Hot Springs
Geysers
Fumaroles
Hydrothermal Features in Yellowstone
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Geothermal Energy
18 The Topography of Arid Lands
A Specialized Environment
Special Conditions in Deserts
Running Water in Waterless Regions
Surface Water in the Desert
Fluvial Erosion in Arid Lands
Fluvial Deposition in Arid Lands
Climate Change and Deserts
The Work of the Wind
Aeolian Erosion
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Desertification
Aeolian Transportation
Aeolian Deposition
Aeolian Processes in Nondesert Regions
Characteristic Desert Landscape Surfaces
Common Desert Surfaces
Erg—A Sea of Sand
Reg—Stony Deserts
Hamada—Barren Bedrock
Two Representative Desert Landform Assemblages
Basin-and-Range Landforms
The Ranges
The Piedmont Zone
The Basins
Death Valley: A Remarkable Example of Basin-and-Range Terrain
Mesa-and-Scarp Terrain
Structure of Mesa-and-Scarp Landforms
Erosion of Escarpment Edge
Arches and Natural Bridges
Badlands
19 Glacial Modification of Terrain
The Impact of Glaciers on the Landscape
Types of Glaciers
Mountain Glaciers
Continental Ice Sheets
Glaciations Past and Present
Pleistocene Glaciation
Indirect Effects of Pleistocene Glaciations
Contemporary Glaciation
Glacier Formation and Movement
Changing Snow to Ice
Glacier Movement
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Disintegration of Antarctic Ice Shelves
Glacier Flow versus Glacier Advance
The Effects of Glaciers
Erosion by Glaciers
Transportation by Glaciers
Deposition by Glaciers
Continental Ice Sheets
Development and Flow
Erosion by Ice Sheets
Deposition by Ice Sheets
Glaciofluvial Features
FOCUS: Shrinking Glaciers
Mountain Glaciers
Development and Flow of Mountain Glaciers
Erosion by Mountain Glaciers
Deposition by Mountain Glaciers
The Periglacial Environment
Patterned Ground
Proglacial Lakes
Causes of the Pleistocene Glaciations
Climate Factors and the Pleistocene
Are We Still in an Ice Age?
20 Coastal Processes and Terrain
The Impact of Waves and Currents on the Landscape
Coastal Processes
The Role of Wind in Coastal Processes
Coastlines of Oceans and Lakes
Waves
Wave Motion
Wave Refraction
Tsunami
Important Shoreline-Shaping Processes
Tides
Changes in Sea Level and Lake Level
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami
ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Tidal Power
Ice Push
Organic Secretions
Stream Outflow
Coastal Sediment Transport
Coastal Depositional Landforms
Sediment Budget of Depositional Landforms
Beaches
Spits
Barrier Islands
Human Alteration of Coastal Sediment Budgets
Shorelines of Submergence and Emergence
Coastal Submergence
Coastal Emergence
Coral Reef Coasts
Coral Polyps
Coral Reefs
FOCUS: Imperiled Coral Reefs
LEARNING CHECK ANSWERS
APPENDIX I: The International System of Units (SI)
APPENDIX II: U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps
APPENDIX III: Meteorological Tables
APPENDIX IV: The Weather Station Model
APPENDIX V: Köppen Climate Classification
APPENDIX VI: Biological Taxonomy
APPENDIX VII: The Soil Taxonomy
GLOSSARY
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
PHOTO
ILLUSTRATION AND TEXT CREDITS
INDEX
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z