Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Plants

Front Cover
Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Plants
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword
I. Nutritional physiology
1 Introduction, definition, and classification of nutrients
Summary
1.1 General
1.2 Essential elements for plant growth
1.3 Beneficial elements for plant growth
1.4 A new definition of a mineral plant nutrient
1.5 Biochemical properties and physiological functions of nutrient elements in plants
1.6 Variation in the angiosperm ionome
References
Further reading
2 Ion-uptake mechanisms of individual cells and roots: short-distance transport
Summary
2.1 General
2.2 Pathway of solutes from the external solution into root cells
2.2.1 Influx to the apoplasm
2.2.2 Passage into the cytoplasm
2.3 Composition of biological membranes
2.4 Solute transport across membranes
2.4.1 Thermodynamics of solute transport
2.4.2 Energy demand for solute transport
2.4.3 The kinetics of solute transport in plant roots
2.5 Factors influencing ion uptake by roots
2.5.1 Influx to the apoplasm
2.5.2 Effects of pH
2.5.3 Metabolic activity
2.5.3.1 Oxygen
2.5.3.2 Carbohydrates
2.5.3.3 Temperature
2.5.4 Interactions among ions in the rhizosphere
2.5.4.1 Competition
2.5.4.2 Effects of extracellular calcium
2.5.4.3 Cation–anion relationships
2.5.5 External concentration
2.5.6 Plant nutritional status
2.5.7 Studying nutrition at constant tissue concentration
2.6 Uptake of ions and water along the root axis
2.7 Radial transport of ions and water across the root
2.8 Release of ions into the xylem
2.9 Factors governing ion release into the xylem and exudation rate
References
3 Long-distance transport in the xylem and phloem*
Summary
3.1 General
3.2 Xylem transport
3.2.1 Composition of the xylem sap
3.2.2 Xylem loading
3.2.2.1 Exchange adsorption in xylem vessels
3.2.2.2 Retrieval and release of nutrients by living cells
3.2.2.3 Xylem unloading in leaves
3.2.3 Effect of transpiration rate on solute transport in the xylem
3.2.3.1 Plant age
3.2.3.2 Time of day
3.2.3.3 External concentration
3.2.3.4 Type of element
3.2.4 Effect of transpiration rate on distribution of elements within the shoot
3.3 Phloem transport
3.3.1 Principles of phloem transport and phloem anatomy
3.3.2 Phloem loading and the composition of phloem sap
3.3.3 Mobility in the phloem
3.3.4 Transfer between the xylem and phloem
3.3.5 Phloem unloading
3.4 Relative importance of phloem and xylem for long-distance transport of nutrients
3.4.1 General
3.4.2 Nutrients with high phloem mobility
3.4.3 Nutrients with low phloem mobility
3.4.4 Re-translocation and cycling of nutrients
3.5 Remobilization of nutrients
3.5.1 General
3.5.2 Seed germination
3.5.3 Vegetative stage
3.5.4 Reproductive stage
3.5.5 Perennials
References
4 Uptake and release of elements by leaves and other aerial plant parts*
Summary
4.1 General
4.2 Uptake and release of gases and other volatile compounds through stomata
4.2.1 Volatile nitrogen compounds
4.2.2 Volatile sulfur compounds
4.3 Uptake of solutes
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Structure of the cuticle
4.3.3 Nutrient uptake through the cuticle
4.3.4 Uptake through stomata
4.3.5 Role of external factors
4.3.5.1 Environmental effects on the barrier properties during ontogenesis
4.3.5.2 Humidity effects on solute concentration and leaf permeability
4.3.5.3 Active ingredients and adjuvants
4.4 Foliar application of nutrients
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Practical importance of foliar application of nutrients
4.4.2.1 Low nutrient availability in soils
4.4.2.2 Dry topsoil
4.4.2.3 Decrease in root activity during the reproductive stage
4.4.2.4 Avoiding the occurrence of physiological disorders and improving quality of horticultural crops
4.4.2.5 Biofortification
4.4.3 Foliar fertilizers for pest and disease control
4.4.4 Foliar uptake and irrigation methods
4.5 Leaching of elements from leaves
4.6 Ecological importance of foliar uptake and leaching
4.6.1 Foliar leaching
4.6.2 Foliar water absorption
References
5 Mineral nutrition, yield, and source–sink relationships*
Summary
5.1 General
5.2 Relationships between nutrient supply and yield
5.3 Photosynthetic activity and related processes
5.3.1 Photosynthetic energy flow and photophosphorylation
5.3.2 Photoinhibition and photooxidation
5.3.3 Carbon dioxide assimilation and photorespiration
5.3.4 C4 pathway of photosynthesis and Crassulacean acid metabolism
5.3.5 Effect of leaf maturation on its sink–source transition
5.3.6 Leaf senescence
5.3.7 Feedback regulation of photosynthesis by sink demand for carbohydrates
5.3.8 Nutrition and photosynthesis
5.4 Photosynthetic area
5.4.1 Individual leaf area
5.4.2 Leaf area per plant
5.4.3 Canopy leaf area (leaf area index and leaf area duration)
5.5 Respiration and oxidative phosphorylation
5.6 Transport of assimilates in phloem and its regulation
5.6.1 Phloem loading of assimilates
5.6.2 Mechanism of phloem transport of assimilates
5.6.3 Phloem unloading
5.7 Sink formation
5.7.1 Shoot architecture for grain/seed yield formation
5.7.2 Flower initiation and development
5.7.3 Pollination and seed development
5.7.4 Formation of vegetative sink organs
5.8 Sink activity
5.9 Role of phytohormones in the regulation of the sink–source relationships
5.9.1 Structure, sites of biosynthesis, and main effects of phytohormones
5.9.2 Phytohormones, signal perception, and signal transduction
5.9.3 Effects of nutrition on the endogenous concentrations of phytohormones
5.9.4 Phytohormones and sink action
5.10 Source and sink limitations on yield
References
6 Functions of macronutrients*
Summary
6.1 Nitrogen
6.1.1 Nitrate transport in plants
6.1.1.1 Nitrate uptake by roots
6.1.1.2 Nitrate efflux from roots
6.1.1.3 Radial transport of nitrate across the root and loading into xylem
6.1.1.4 Nitrate transport within the cell
6.1.1.5 Nitrate transport within the shoot
6.1.2 Ammonium transport into and within plants
6.1.2.1 Ammonium uptake by roots
6.1.2.2 Ammonium in the shoot
6.1.3 Organic N uptake
6.1.3.1 Amino acid uptake
6.1.3.2 Urea uptake and metabolism
6.1.4 Nitrogen assimilation
6.1.4.1 Nitrate reduction
6.1.4.2 Ammonium assimilation
6.1.4.3 Low-molecular-weight organic N compounds
6.1.5 Nitrogen supply, plant growth, and composition
6.1.5.1 Synergy between ammonium and nitrate nutrition
6.1.5.2 Ammonium toxicity
6.1.5.3 Nitrogen deficiency
6.1.5.4 Changes in root system architecture in response to N supply
6.1.5.5 Storage proteins
6.1.6 Nitrogen-use efficiency
6.2 Sulfur
6.2.1 General
6.2.2 Sulfate uptake, reduction, and assimilation
6.2.3 Metabolic functions of S
6.2.4 Sulfur supply, plant growth, and plant composition
6.3 Phosphorus
6.3.1 General
6.3.2 Phosphorus as a structural element
6.3.3 Role in energy transfer
6.3.4 Compartmentation and regulatory role of inorganic phosphate
6.3.5 Phosphorus fractions and the role of phytate
6.3.6 Phosphorus supply, plant growth, and plant composition
6.4 Magnesium
6.4.1 General
6.4.2 Binding form, compartmentation, and homeostasis
6.4.3 Chlorophyll and protein synthesis
6.4.4 Enzyme activation, phosphorylation, and photosynthesis
6.4.5 Carbohydrate partitioning
6.4.6 Magnesium supply, plant growth, and composition
6.5 Calcium
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Binding form and compartmentation
6.5.3 Cell wall stabilization
6.5.4 Cell extension and secretory processes
6.5.5 Membrane stabilization
6.5.6 Cation–anion balance and osmoregulation
6.5.7 Calcium as an intracellular second messenger
6.5.8 Calcium as a systemic signal
6.5.9 Calcium supply, plant growth, and plant composition
6.6 Potassium
6.6.1 General
6.6.2 Compartmentation and cellular concentrations
6.6.3 Enzyme activation
6.6.4 Protein synthesis
6.6.5 Photosynthesis
6.6.6 Osmoregulation
6.6.6.1 Cell extension
6.6.6.2 Stomatal movement
6.6.6.3 Photonastic and seismonastic movements
6.6.7 Phloem transport
6.6.8 Energy transfer
6.6.9 Cation–anion balance
6.6.10 Stress resistance
6.6.11 Potassium supply, plant growth, and plant composition
References
7 Micronutrients
Summary
7.1 Iron
7.1.1 General
7.1.2 Iron-containing constituents of redox systems
7.1.2.1 Heme proteins
7.1.2.2 Fe-S proteins
7.1.3 Other Fe-requiring enzymes
7.1.4 Chloroplast development and photosynthesis
7.1.5 Localization and binding state of Fe
7.1.6 Root responses to Fe deficiency
7.1.7 Iron deficiency and toxicity
7.2 Manganese
7.2.1 General
7.2.2 Mn-containing enzymes
7.2.3 The functional role of Mn in photosynthesis
7.2.3.1 Manganese at the active site of water oxidation in photosystem II
7.2.4 Manganese in superoxide dismutase
7.2.5 Manganese in oxalate oxidase
7.2.6 Other Mn-dependent enzymes
7.2.7 Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
7.2.8 Cell division and extension
7.2.9 Manganese deficiency
7.2.10 Manganese toxicity
7.3 Copper
7.3.1 General
7.3.2 Copper uptake and transport
7.3.3 Copper proteins
7.3.3.1 Plastocyanin
7.3.3.2 Superoxide dismutase
7.3.3.3 Cytochrome c oxidase
7.3.3.4 Ascorbate oxidase
7.3.3.5 Diamine oxidases
7.3.3.6 Polyphenol oxidases
7.3.4 Carbohydrate, lipid, and N metabolism
7.3.5 Lignification
7.3.6 Pollen formation and fertilization
7.3.7 Copper deficiency and toxicity
7.3.7.1 Copper deficiency
7.3.7.2 Copper toxicity
7.4 Zinc
7.4.1 General
7.4.2 Zn-containing enzymes
7.4.2.1 Alcohol dehydrogenase
7.4.2.2 Carbonic anhydrase
7.4.2.3 CuZn superoxide dismutase
7.4.2.4 Other Zn-containing enzymes
7.4.3 Zn-activated enzymes
7.4.4 Protein synthesis
7.4.5 Carbohydrate metabolism
7.4.6 Tryptophan and indole acetic acid synthesis
7.4.7 Membrane integrity and lipid peroxidation
7.4.8 Phosphorus-zinc interactions
7.4.9 Zinc forms and bioavailability in grains
7.4.10 Zinc deficiency and toxicity
7.4.10.1 Zinc deficiency
7.4.10.2 Zinc toxicity
7.4.10.3 Tolerance to Zn toxicity
7.5 Nickel
7.5.1 General
7.5.2 Ni-containing enzymes
7.5.3 Role of Ni in N metabolism
7.5.4 Nickel concentration in plants
7.5.5 Nickel deficiency and toxicity
7.5.6 Tolerance to Ni toxicity
7.6 Molybdenum
7.6.1 General
7.6.2 Molybdenum uptake and transport
7.6.3 Nitrogenase
7.6.4 Nitrate reductase
7.6.5 Other Mo-containing enzymes
7.6.6 Gross metabolic changes
7.6.7 Molybdenum deficiency and toxicity
7.7 Boron
7.7.1 General
7.7.2 Boron complexes with organic structures
7.7.3 Function of B
7.7.3.1 Cell wall structure
7.7.3.2 Metabolism
7.7.3.3 Membrane function
7.7.3.4 Reproductive growth and development
7.7.3.5 Root elongation and shoot growth
7.7.3.6 Integrated assessment of the function of B in plants
7.7.4 Boron deficiency and toxicity
7.7.4.1 Boron deficiency
7.7.4.2 Boron toxicity and tolerance
7.8 Chlorine
7.8.1 General
7.8.2 Uptake, transport, and homeostasis
7.8.2.1 Net Cl− uptake
7.8.2.2 Root-to-shoot Cl− translocation
7.8.2.3 Endomembrane Cl− transporters
7.8.2.4 Chloride recirculation
7.8.3 Charge balance
7.8.4 Photosynthesis and chloroplast performance
7.8.4.1 Photosystem II oxygen-evolving complex
7.8.4.2 Photoprotection and fine-tuning of photosynthesis to changes in light intensity
7.8.5 Cell osmoregulation and turgor
7.8.5.1 Vacuolar compartmentalization and proton-pumping V-type ATPase
7.8.5.2 Cell volume regulation and stomatal function
7.8.5.3 Cell elongation and plant growth
7.8.6 Plant water balance and water relations
7.8.6.1 Water storage capacity
7.8.6.2 Water relations, water-use efficiency, and drought resistance
7.8.7 Interaction with nitrate
7.8.7.1 Regulation of N-use efficiency
7.8.7.2 Regulation of N metabolism
7.8.8 Chloride supply, deficiency, plant growth, and crop yield
7.8.8.1 Energy/metabolic saving
7.8.8.2 Chloride deficiency
7.8.8.3 Crop yield
7.8.9 Chlorine toxicity
7.8.10 Chlorine as micro- and macronutrient - concluding remarks
References
8 Beneficial elements*
Summary
8.1 Definition
8.2 Sodium
8.2.1 General
8.2.2 Essentiality: Na as nutrient
8.2.3 Role in C4 species
8.2.4 Substitution of K by Na
8.2.5 Growth stimulation by Na
8.2.6 Application of Na fertilizers
8.3 Silicon
8.3.1 General
8.3.2 Uptake, concentration, and distribution
8.3.3 Beneficial effects
8.4 Cobalt
8.4.1 Role of Co in plants
8.4.2 Cobalt deficiency and toxicity
8.5 Selenium
8.5.1 General
8.5.2 Uptake and translocation
8.5.3 Assimilation and metabolism
8.5.4 Beneficial effects on plant growth
8.5.5 Biofortification
8.6 Aluminum
8.7 Other elements
References
9 Mineral nutrition and crop quality
Summary
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Technical quality
9.2.1 Bread and pasta
9.2.2 Sugar and oil crops
9.2.3 Fiber crops
9.2.4 Processing tomatoes
9.2.5 Beer and wine
9.3 Sensory quality
9.3.1 Effects of mineral nutrition on visual quality
9.3.2 Effects of mineral nutrition on flavor
9.4 Nutritional quality
9.4.1 Mineral nutrients, hidden hunger, and biofortification
9.4.2 Protein concentration and amino acid composition
9.4.3 Vitamins and bioactive phytochemicals
9.5 Shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables
9.6 Food safety
9.6.1 Toxic elements
9.6.2 Harmful N compounds
9.7 The yield-quality dilemma
References
10 Relationship between mineral nutrition, plant diseases, and pests*
Summary
10.1 General
10.2 Relationship between susceptibility and nutritional status of plants
10.3 Fungal diseases
10.3.1 Principles of infection
10.3.2 Role of Si
10.3.3 Role of N and K
10.3.4 Role of Ca and Mg
10.3.5 Role of phosphate and phosphite
10.3.6 Role of S
10.3.7 Role of Mn
10.3.8 Role of other micronutrients
10.4 Bacterial and viral diseases
10.4.1 Bacterial diseases
10.4.2 Viral diseases
10.5 Soil-borne fungal and bacterial diseases
10.6 Pests
10.7 Direct and indirect effects of fertilizer application on plants and their pathogens and pests
References
11 Diagnosis and prediction of deficiency and toxicity of nutrients*
Summary
11.1 General
11.2 Tools for diagnosis of nutrient disorders
11.2.1 Field responses to nutrient supply
11.2.2 Diagnosis of nutritional disorders by visible symptoms
11.2.3 Plant analysis
11.2.3.1 General
11.2.3.2 Plant analysis for diagnosis of nutrient disorders
11.2.3.3 Developmental stage of plant and age of leaves
11.2.3.4 Plant species and genotypes
11.2.3.5 Nutrient interactions and ratios
11.2.3.6 Environmental factors
11.2.3.7 Total analysis versus fractionated extraction
11.2.3.8 Histochemical, biochemical, and spectral methods
11.3 Plant analysis for prognosis of nutrient deficiency
11.4 Plant analysis versus soil analysis
References
II. Plant–soil relationships
12 Nutrient availability in soils*
Summary
12.1 General
12.2 Chemical soil analysis
12.3 Movement of nutrients to the root surface
12.3.1 Principles of calculations
12.3.2 Concentration of nutrients in the soil solution
12.3.3 Role of mass flow
12.3.4 Role of diffusion
12.3.4.1 Soil factors
12.3.4.2 Plant factors
12.4 Role of root density
12.5 Nutrient availability and distribution of water in soils
12.6 Role of soil structure
12.7 Intensity/quantity ratio, plant factors, and consequences for soil testing
12.7.1 Modeling of nutrient availability and crop nutrient uptake
References
13 Genetic and environmental regulation of root growth and development
Summary
13.1 General
13.2 Genetic control of root growth and development
13.2.1 Root system architecture
13.2.2 Root anatomy and structure: from arabidopsis to crops
13.2.3 Embryonic and postembryonic root branching
13.2.4 Phytohormonal control of root growth and development
13.2.4.1 Auxin and its role in root growth and development
13.2.4.2 Crosstalk between auxin and other phytohormones
13.3 Regulation of root growth and development by environmental cues
13.3.1 Nutritional control of root development
13.3.1.1 Nitrogen
13.3.1.2 Phosphorus
13.3.1.3 Potassium
13.3.1.4 Iron
13.3.2 Soil physical and chemical factors
13.3.2.1 Mechanical impedance
13.3.2.2 Soil temperature
13.3.2.3 Soil water
13.3.2.4 Soil aeration
13.3.3 Root–soil biotic interactions
13.3.3.1 Beneficial rhizosphere bacteria
13.3.3.2 Beneficial plant–fungus interactions in mycorrhizal symbiosis
References
14 Rhizosphere chemistry influencing plant nutrition*
Summary
14.1 General
14.1.1 Rhizosphere sampling
14.2 Spatial extent of the rhizosphere
14.2.1 Radial gradients
14.2.2 Longitudinal gradients
14.2.3 Temporal variability
14.3 Inorganic elements in the rhizosphere
14.4 Rhizosphere pH
14.4.1 Source of nitrogen supply and rhizosphere pH
14.4.2 Nutritional status of plants and rhizosphere pH
14.5 Redox potential and reducing processes
14.5.1 Effect of waterlogging
14.5.2 Manganese mobilization
14.5.3 Iron mobilization
14.6 Rhizodeposition and root exudates
14.6.1 Sloughed-off cells and tissues
14.6.2 High-molecular-weight compounds in root exudates
14.6.2.1 Mucilage and mucigel
14.6.2.2 Secretory proteins
14.6.3 Low-molecular-weight root exudates
14.6.3.1 Diffusion-mediated release of low-molecular-weight compounds
14.6.3.2 Retrieval mechanisms
14.6.3.3 Controlled release of low-molecular-weight compounds
References
15 Rhizosphere biology*
Summary
15.1 General
15.2 The rhizosphere as dynamic system
15.3 Rhizosphere microorganisms
15.3.1 Root colonization
15.3.2 Role in nutrition of plants
15.3.3 Root exudates as signals and phytohormone precursors
15.4 Endophytes
15.5 Methods to study rhizosphere microorganisms
15.6 Mycorrhiza
15.6.1 General
15.6.2 Mycorrhizal groups, morphology, and structure
15.6.2.1 Endomycorrhiza
15.6.2.2 Ectomycorrhiza
15.6.3 Root colonization, photosynthate demand, and host plant growth
15.6.3.1 Root colonization
15.6.3.2 Photosynthate demand
15.6.3.3 Host plant growth
15.6.4 Mycorrhizal responsiveness
15.6.5 Role of AM in nutrition of their host plant
15.6.6 Role of AM in agriculture
15.6.7 Role of ectomycorrhiza in nutrition of plants
15.6.8 Role of mycorrhiza in tolerance to high metal concentrations
15.6.9 Other mycorrhizal effects
15.6.9.1 Phytohormonal effects and plant water relations
15.6.9.2 Suppression of root pathogens and nematodes
15.6.9.3 Suppression of leaf pathogens
References
16 Nitrogen fixation*
Summary
16.1 General
16.2 Biological nitrogen-fixing systems
16.3 Biochemistry of nitrogen fixation
16.4 Symbiotic systems: how do they work?
16.4.1 General
16.4.2 Range of legume–rhizobia symbioses
16.4.3 Legume root infection by rhizobia
16.4.4 Nodule formation and functioning in legumes
16.5 Effects of nutrients on the biological nitrogen fixation
16.5.1 Nutrients other than nitrogen
16.5.1.1 Phosphorus
16.5.1.2 Potassium
16.5.1.3 Calcium
16.5.1.4 Magnesium
16.5.1.5 Sulfur
16.5.1.6 Molybdenum
16.5.1.7 Iron
16.5.1.8 Boron
16.5.1.9 Cobalt
16.5.1.10 Manganese
16.5.1.11 Copper, zinc, and silicon
16.5.1.12 Nickel
16.5.1.13 Nutritional and other disorders related to soil acidity
16.5.2 Effect of mineral nitrogen
16.6 Soil and environmental limitations
16.6.1 Salinity
16.6.2 Soil water content
16.6.3 Temperature
16.7 Methods to quantify the contribution of BNF, amounts of N fixed by legumes, and N transfer to other plants in intercro...
16.8 Significance of free-living and associative nitrogen fixation
16.9 Microbial inoculation to promote BNF and improve plant nutrition
16.10 Final remarks
References
17 Nutrient-use efficiency
Summary
17.1 General
17.2 Calcium and boron requirements of monocots and dicots
17.3 Phosphorus and nitrogen requirements of plant species that evolved in severely phosphorus-impoverished landscapes
17.4 Micronutrient requirements of plant species that evolved in severely phosphorus-impoverished landscapes
17.5 Nitrogen requirements of C3 and C4 plants
17.6 Calcicole species
17.7 Variation in leaf sulfur requirement among plant species
17.8 Fluoride in leaves of plants occurring on soils containing little fluoride
17.9 Selenium in leaves of some plants
17.10 Silicon as a beneficial element in leaves of some plants
17.11 Leaf longevity and nutrient remobilization
References
18 Plant responses to soil-borne ion toxicities*
Summary
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Acid mineral soils
18.2.1 Major constraints
18.2.2 Proton toxicity
18.2.3 Aluminum toxicity
18.2.3.1 Aluminum solution chemistry
18.2.3.2 Inhibition of root growth
18.2.3.3 Interference with root-cell plasma membrane properties
18.2.3.4 Inhibited nutrient and water uptake
18.2.3.5 Importance of Mg nutrition in alleviating Al toxicity
18.2.3.6 Nitric oxide
18.2.4 Manganese toxicity
18.3 Mechanisms of adaptation to acid mineral soils
18.3.1 General
18.3.2 Aluminum resistance by avoidance
18.3.2.1 Aluminum detoxification by root exudates
18.3.2.2 Rhizosphere pH
18.3.2.3 Reduced aluminum binding in the root apoplast
18.3.3 Aluminum tolerance
18.3.3.1 Aluminum accumulation
18.3.4 Screening for aluminum resistance
18.3.5 Manganese tolerance
18.3.5.1 Breeding for Mn tolerance
18.3.5.2 Hyperaccumulation of Mn
18.4 Waterlogged and flooded (hypoxic) soils
18.4.1 Soil chemical factors
18.4.2 Hypoxia stress
18.4.3 Phytotoxic metabolites under hypoxia
18.4.4 Phytohormones and root-to-shoot signals
18.4.5 Element toxicity as a component of hypoxia stress
18.4.6 Mechanisms underpinning tolerance to, and avoidance of, hypoxic stress
18.4.6.1 Phenotypic adaptation
18.5 Saline soils
18.5.1 General
18.5.2 Soil characteristics and classification
18.5.3 Salinity and plant growth
18.5.3.1 Major constraints
18.5.3.2 Water deficit
18.5.3.3 Sodium and chloride uptake and toxicity in plants
18.5.3.4 Ion imbalances
18.5.3.5 Photosynthesis and respiration
18.5.3.6 Protein biosynthesis
18.5.3.7 Phytohormones
18.5.4 Mechanisms of adaptation to saline substrates
18.5.4.1 Salt exclusion versus salt inclusion
18.5.4.2 Salt distribution in shoot tissues
18.5.4.3 Osmotic adjustment
18.5.4.4 Vacuolar compartmentation and compatible solutes
18.5.4.5 Detoxification of reactive oxygen species
18.5.4.6 Salt excretion
18.5.5 Exploiting salt-affected soils
18.5.6 Genotypic differences in growth response to salinity
References
19 Nutrition of plants in a changing climate
Summary
19.1 General
19.2 The changing climate
19.2.1 Historical climate trends
19.2.2 Soil temperature
19.2.3 Precipitation and soil moisture
19.3 Plant responses to global climate change
19.3.1 C3 and C4 plants
19.3.2 Adaptation of C3 and C4 plants to future climates
19.4 Nutrient accumulation
19.4.1 C3 versus C4 plants
19.4.2 Plant response to fertilization
19.4.3 Nitrogen assimilation in future climates
19.4.4 Leguminous plants and N2 fixation
19.5 Nutrient-use efficiency
19.5.1 General nutrient-use efficiency concepts
19.5.2 Nutrient-use efficiency of cereals
19.5.3 Nutrient-use efficiency of forage and pasture species
19.5.4 Nutrient-use efficiency of forest species
19.6 Global climate change and root zone nutrient availability
19.6.1 Impact on coupled carbon-nutrient cycling
19.6.1.1 Rhizosphere processes
19.6.2 Mycorrhizae and nutrient uptake
19.6.3 Diffusivity and mass flow
19.6.4 System-level nutrient inputs and losses
19.6.4.1 Atmospheric deposition
19.6.4.2 Biological N2 fixation
19.6.4.3 Surface erosion and leaching
19.7 Mineral composition of food/feed
19.7.1 Mineral composition of grains and fruits
19.7.2 Forage and pasture composition and mineral nutrition
19.7.3 Composition of trees and timber
References
20 Nutrient and carbon fluxes in terrestrial agroecosystems*
Summary
20.1 Microbiological factors determining carbon and nitrogen emissions
20.1.1 CO2 emission
20.1.2 Fungal and bacterial contributions to CO2 emissions
20.1.3 CH4 emissions
20.1.4 N2 and N2O emissions
20.2 Effects of organic soil amendments on gaseous fluxes
20.3 Effects of pH, soil water content, and temperature on organic matter turnover
20.4 Global warming effects
20.5 Plant–animal interactions affecting nutrient fluxes at different scales
20.5.1 Species-specific relationship between feed intake and excreta quality
20.5.1.1 Quantitative aspects of intake and excretion
20.5.1.2 Quality of ruminant excreta
20.5.1.3 Quality of pig and poultry excreta
20.5.2 Nutrient and carbon losses from livestock excreta
20.5.3 Spatial aspects of livestock-mediated nutrient fluxes and modeling
20.6 Scale issues in modeling
20.7 Nutrient fluxes in rural–urban systems
References
Index
Back Cover