Management of Track and Field Injuries

Foreword
Presidential Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction
Part I: Anatomy, Physiology and Biomechanics
1: The Burden and Epidemiology of Injury in Track and Field
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Injuries during Championships
1.2.1 Injuries during International Track and Field Championships
1.2.2 Injuries during National Track and Field Championships
1.2.3 Conclusion Injuries During Championships
1.3 Injuries During the Whole Season
1.3.1 Injuries During the Whole Season in National-Level Athletes
1.3.2 Injuries During the Whole Season in Specific Population
1.3.3 Characteristics of Injuries According to Disciplines During the Whole Season
1.3.4 Conclusions on Injuries During the Whole Season
1.4 Conclusion
References
2: Sprinter Muscle. Anatomy and Biomechanics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sprinter’s Specificity
2.3 Essential Elements
2.4 Measurement of Muscle Size
2.5 Biomechanics of Sprint
2.6 Sprint Training
2.7 Differences between Young and Old Sprinters
References
3: Tendons and Jumping: Anatomy and Pathomechanics of Tendon Injuries
3.1 Biomechanics
3.2 Anatomy
3.3 Mechanobiology
3.4 Pathophysiology
3.5 Pathomechanics
3.5.1 Acute Injury Patterns
3.5.2 Chronic Injury Patterns
3.6 Biomechanical Diagnostics and Therapy
References
4: Ligament Function and Pathoanatomy of Injury and Healing
4.1 Structure and Function
4.2 Injury
4.3 Healing
4.4 Factors Affecting Healing
4.4.1 Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
4.4.2 Cortisone Injections
4.5 Healing Augmentation
References
5: Anatomy and Function of Articular Cartilage
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Chondrogenesis
5.2 Types of Cartilage
5.3 Articular Cartilage Components
5.3.1 Extracellular Matrix
5.3.2 Non-collagenous Proteins
5.3.2.1 Proteoglycan
5.3.2.2 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
5.3.2.3 Structural Proteins
5.3.2.4 Regulatory Proteins
5.3.3 Chondrocytes
5.4 Zones of Articular Cartilage
5.4.1 Superficial/Tangential Zone
5.4.2 Middle/Transitional Zone
5.4.3 Deep/Basal Zone
5.4.4 Tidemark and Calcified Zone
5.5 Main Function of Articular Cartilage
5.6 Aging in Articular Cartilage
5.7 Healing in Articular Cartilage
References
6: Bone Structure and Function in the Distance Runner
6.1 Bone Structure and Functions
6.2 Bone Cells
6.3 Microscopic Structure
6.4 Bone Formation
6.5 Bone Remodeling
6.6 Fracture Healing
6.7 Bone Response to Mechanical Stimuli and Stress Fractures
6.8 Stress Fractures in the Lower Limbs
References
7: Diagnostic Imaging in Track and Field Athletes
7.1 Foot and Ankle
7.1.1 Tendinopathy
7.1.2 Capsule Ligament Injury
7.2 Knee
7.2.1 Tendinopathy
7.2.2 Capsule Ligament Injury
7.2.3 Meniscal Lesions
7.3 Pelvis
7.3.1 Pubalgia
7.4 Lumbar Spine
7.5 Muscle Lesions
7.6 Stress Fractures
References
Part II: Upper Extremity
8: Shoulder Instability in Track and Field Athletes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Anatomy
8.3 Biomechanics
8.3.1 Javelin
8.3.2 Hammer Throw
8.3.3 Shot Put
8.3.4 Discus
8.3.5 Pole Vault
8.4 Management/Examination/Rehabilitation
8.4.1 Presentation
8.4.2 Examination
8.4.3 Imaging
8.4.4 Nonoperative Management
8.5 Surgery
8.5.1 Diagnostic Arthroscopy
8.5.2 Inferior Repair
8.5.3 Posterior Repair
8.5.4 Anterior Repair
8.5.5 Superior Repair
8.5.6 Bone Loss
8.5.7 Postoperative Rehabilitation
8.6 Summary
References
9: Rotator Cuff Injuries in Throwing Athletes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pathophysiology
9.3 Type of Tears
9.3.1 Articular Tears
9.3.2 Intratendinous Tears
9.3.3 Bursal-Sided Tears
9.4 Classification
9.5 Clinical Findings
9.6 Physical Examination
9.7 Radiological Evaluation
9.8 Conservative Management
9.9 Operative Management
9.10 Arthroscopic Debridement
9.11 Surgical Repair
9.12 Repair Techniques
9.13 Treatment Algorithm
References
10: Elbow Injuries in Throwing Athletes
10.1 Introduction: Anatomy and Biomechanics
10.2 Diagnosis
10.2.1 Physical Examination and Imaging
10.3 Treatment of M-UCL Lesions in Athletes
10.3.1 Post-op Protocol
References
11: Wrist Injuries in Throwers
11.1 Background
11.2 De Quervain’s Disease
11.3 Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Tendinitis
11.4 Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Subluxation
11.5 Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex Tear
11.6 Physeal Injury
11.7 Conclusion
References
Part III: Hip Injuries
12: Acute and Long-Standing Groin Injuries
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Diagnosis
12.2.1 Subjective History
12.3 Diagnosis of Long-Standing Adductor-Related Groin Pain
12.4 Diagnosis of Acute Adductor Injuries
12.5 Diagnosis of Long-Standing Iliopsoas-Related Groin Pain
12.6 Diagnosis of Acute Iliopsoas Injuries
12.7 Diagnosis of Inguinal-Related Groin Pain
12.8 Diagnosis of Acute Rectus Femoris Injuries
12.9 Treatment
12.9.1 Long-Standing Adductor-Related Groin Pain
12.9.2 Treatment of Acute Adductor Injury
12.9.3 Long-Standing and Acute Iliopsoas-Related Groin Pain
12.9.4 Long-Standing Inguinal-Related Groin Injury
References
13: Femoral Neck Stress Fractures and Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Femoral Neck Stress Fractures
13.2.1 Epidemiology and Risk Factors
13.2.2 Pathogenesis
13.2.3 Classification
13.2.4 Clinical Evaluation
13.2.5 Nonoperative Management
13.2.6 Operative Management
13.2.7 Outcomes and Complications
13.3 Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head
13.3.1 Clinical Evaluation and Classification
13.3.2 Nonoperative Treatment
13.3.3 Operative Treatment
13.4 Summary
References
14: Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome and Labral Injuries
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Aetiology
14.2.1 Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome
14.2.2 Cam Morphology
14.2.3 Pincer Morphology
14.2.4 Labral Tears
14.3 Diagnosis
14.3.1 Medical History
14.3.2 Clinical Signs
14.3.3 Imaging Findings
14.4 Treatment
14.4.1 Rehabilitation
14.4.2 Surgical Treatment
14.5 Prognosis
References
15: Peritrochanteric Disorders in Athletes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Gluteal Tendinopathy
15.2.1 Pathomechanics
15.2.1.1 Diagnosis
15.2.1.2 Other Related Conditions
15.2.1.3 Management
Gluteal Tendon Repair
ITB Release/Lengthening
Trochanteric Bursectomy
15.3 “Hip Pointer” Injuries
15.4 Painful Snapping Hip Syndrome
15.4.1 Pathomechanics
15.4.1.1 Diagnosis
15.4.1.2 Management
15.5 Piriformis Syndrome
15.5.1 Treatment
15.6 Summary
References
Part IV: Muscle Injuries
16: Acute and Chronic Hamstring Injuries
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Anatomy and Injury Distribution
16.1.1.1 Biceps Femoris Long Head and Short Head
16.1.1.2 Semitendinosus
16.1.1.3 Semimembranosus
16.1.1.4 The Proximal Hamstring Tendon Complex
16.1.1.5 The Intramuscular Tendon
16.1.2 Diagnosis
16.1.2.1 History: Acute Versus Chronic
16.1.2.2 Physical Examination
16.1.2.3 Imaging
16.1.3 Treatment
16.1.3.1 Physiotherapy
16.1.3.2 Surgery
16.1.3.3 Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy
16.1.3.4 Platelet-Rich Plasma
16.1.3.5 Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Corticosteroids
16.1.4 Conclusion
References
17: Regenerative Medicine (Biological) Therapies for Acute Muscle Injury
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Muscle Structure
17.3 Muscle Healing
17.3.1 Degeneration and Inflammation
17.3.2 Regeneration and Remodeling
17.4 Biological Treatments
17.4.1 Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP)
17.4.2 Actovegin
17.4.3 Traumeel
17.4.4 Stem Cell Therapy
17.4.5 Anti-Fibrotic Therapy
17.4.5.1 Decorin
17.4.5.2 Suramin
17.4.5.3 Losartan
17.4.5.4 Interferon-ƴ
17.4.6 Safety of Intramuscular Injections
17.4.7 Conclusion
References
18: Compartment Syndrome and Shin Splints
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Compartment Syndrome of the Upper Limbs
18.3 Compartment Syndrome of the Lower Limbs
18.4 Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome
18.5 Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (MTSS, Shin Splints)
References
Part V: Common Knee Injuries
19: Management of Track and Field: Knee Meniscal and Chondral Injuries
19.1 Epidemiology
19.2 Pathogenesis of Chondral Injuries
19.3 Pathogenesis of Meniscal Tears
19.4 Management Chondral Lesions
19.5 Management of Meniscal Tears
19.6 Conclusion
References
20: Patellofemoral Overuse Injuries and Anterior Knee Pain
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Pathophysiology and Pathomechanics
20.2.1 Malalignment
20.2.2 Muscular Imbalance
20.2.3 Overload
20.3 Specific Pathological Patterns
20.3.1 Bursitis
20.3.2 Tendinopathy
20.3.3 Synovial Impingement
20.3.4 Hoffa Disease
20.3.5 Synovial Plica Syndrome
20.4 Diagnosis
20.4.1 Clinical Evaluation
20.4.2 Imaging
20.4.2.1 X-ray
20.4.2.2 MRI
20.4.2.3 CT-Scan
20.5 Treatment
20.5.1 Injections
20.5.2 Exercise
20.5.3 Surgery
20.6 Prevention
20.7 Conclusions
References
21: Knee Ligament Injuries in Track and Field Athletes
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Epidemiology of Knee Ligamentous Injuries in Track and Field
21.3 Mechanism, Diagnosis, and Management of Knee Ligament Injuries
21.4 Knee Ligamentous Injury Considerations by Event
21.4.1 Injury Mechanisms by Event
21.4.2 Treatment of Knee Ligament Injury by Event
21.4.3 Prevention of Knee Ligament Injury by Event
21.5 The Case of a Skeletally Immature Female Athlete
21.6 Conclusion
References
Part VI: Common Foot and Ankle Injuries
22: Achilles Tendon, Calf, and Peroneal Tendon Injuries
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Anatomy
22.2.1 Anatomy of the Calf and the Achilles Tendon
22.2.2 Anatomy of the Peroneal Tendons
22.3 Epidemiology
22.4 Sports Dynamics and Related Physical Demands of the Calf and Peroneal Tendons
22.4.1 Excessive Loading
22.4.2 Rapid, Repeated Transitions on Uneven Ground
22.4.3 Acceleration
22.4.4 Middle- and Long-distance Running
22.5 Calf Injuries
22.5.1 Pathologies
22.5.2 Clinical Signs and Diagnostics
22.5.3 Treatment
22.6 Achilles Tendon Injuries
22.6.1 Pathologies
22.6.2 Clinical Signs and Diagnostics
22.6.3 Treatment
22.7 Peroneal Tendon Injuries
22.7.1 Pathologies
22.7.2 Clinical Signs and Diagnostics
22.7.3 Treatment
22.7.4 Rehabilitation
22.8 Injury Prevention
22.9 Conclusion
References
23: Bunions, Hallux Rigidus, Turf Toe, and Sesamoid Injury in the Track and Field Athlete
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Anatomy and Biomechanics
23.1.1.1 Anatomy of the Hallux MTP Joint Complex
23.1.1.2 Biomechanics
23.2 Bunions and Hallux Valgus
23.2.1 Conservative Management
23.2.2 Surgical Treatment
23.3 Hallux Rigidus
23.3.1 Conservative Management
23.3.2 Surgical Treatment
23.4 Sesamoid Disorders and Turf Toe Injuries
23.4.1 Turf Toe Injuries
23.4.1.1 Conservative Management
23.4.1.2 Surgical Treatment
23.5 Conclusions
References
24: Ankle Sprains and Instability
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Epidemiology
24.3 Ankle Joint Anatomy
24.4 Trauma Mechanism of Ankle Sprains
24.5 Diagnosis
24.6 Treatment
24.7 Return to Performance/Sport
24.8 Long-Term Consequences
24.8.1 Chronic Ankle Instability (CAI)
24.8.2 Articular Cartilage Degeneration
24.9 Primary and Secondary Prevention
References
25: Osteochondral Lesions of the Ankle: An Evidence-Based Approach for Track and Field Athletes
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Incidence and Pathogenesis
25.3 Clinical Presentation
25.4 Imaging Strategies
25.5 Treatment
25.5.1 Conservative Treatment
25.5.2 Surgical Treatment
25.5.2.1 Bone Marrow Stimulation (BMS)
25.5.2.2 Fixation Techniques
25.5.2.3 Cartilage Transplantation and Chondrogenesis Inducing Techniques
25.5.2.4 Osteo(Chondral) Transplantation
25.6 Rehabilitation and Return to Sports
References
26: Heel Spurs and Plantar Fasciitis in Runners
26.1 Etiology and Epidemiology
26.2 Patient Evaluation
26.2.1 History
26.2.2 Physical Examination
26.2.3 Imaging
26.3 Management
26.3.1 Conservative Treatments
26.3.2 Surgical Treatment
References
27: Nerve Injuries in the Foot and Ankle: Neuromas, Neuropathy, Entrapments, and Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome
27.1 Morton’s Neuroma
27.2 Superficial Peroneal Nerve Entrapment
27.3 Sural Nerve Entrapment
27.4 Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome
27.5 Baxter’s Neuropathy
References
28: Foot and Ankle Stress Fractures in Athletics
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Epidemiology
28.3 Etiopathogenesis
28.4 Clinical Assessment and Radiological Evaluation
28.5 General Treatment Concepts
28.6 Tibial Stress Fractures
28.6.1 Etiopathogenesis
28.6.2 Clinical Assessment and Radiological Evaluation
28.6.3 Management
28.7 Fifth Metatarsal Stress Fractures
28.7.1 Etiopathogenesis
28.7.2 Clinical Assessment and Radiological Evaluation
28.7.3 Management
28.8 Navicular Stress Fractures
28.8.1 Etiopathogenesis
28.8.2 Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis
28.8.3 Clinical Assessment and Radiological Evaluation
28.9 Medial Malleolus Stress Fractures
28.10 Second Metatarsal
28.11 Other Stress Fractures of the Foot
28.11.1 Calcaneal
28.11.2 Talus
References
Part VII: Special Considerations
29: Injury Prevention in Track and Field
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Prevention: A Multisteps Challenge!
29.3 What Can we Do to Reduce the Risk of Injuries in Track and Field?
29.4 Conclusions
References
30: Management of Track and Field Injuries: Insights into Energy Availability in Athletes
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Low Energy Availability in Sports
30.2.1 Energy Intake
30.2.2 Exercise Energy Expenditure
30.2.3 Interpretation
30.3 Health Aspects of Low Energy Availability–Female Athlete Triad
30.3.1 Disordered Eating
30.3.2 Amenorrhea
30.3.3 Osteoporosis
30.4 Further Development of the FAT
30.5 Health Consequences of Low Energy Availability–Specifically in Men
30.6 Health Consequences of Low Energy Availability–specific Components of the Syndrome of RED-S
30.7 Performance Consequences of Low Energy Availability
30.8 Prevention and Early Recognition of Low Energy Availability
30.8.1 Monitoring Tools
30.9 Management of Low Energy Availability in Sports Medical Practice
30.10 Final Remarks
References
31: The Aging Athlete: Influence of Age on Injury Risk and Rehabilitation
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Physiological Aging of the Musculoskeletal System
31.3 The Role of Physical Exercise and Sports Activity on Aging
31.4 Patterns of Performance Decline in Master Athletes
31.4.1 Age and Modality
31.4.2 Peak Performance Age
31.4.2.1 Runners
31.4.3 Psychological and Social Aspects
31.5 Injuries in Track and Field Athletes
31.5.1 Age and Gender
31.5.2 Championship
31.5.3 Runners
31.5.3.1 Previous Injuries
31.5.3.2 Stress Fractures
31.5.3.3 Novice Athletes
31.6 Rehabilitation of Sports Injuries
31.7 Take-Home Message
References
32: Growth and Development
32.1 Normal Patterns of Growth
32.2 Chronological Versus Maturational Age
32.3 Summary
32.4 Recommendations
References
33: Optimizing Training and Performance
33.1 General Training Concepts
33.2 Speed and Hurdles Training
33.3 Long-Distance Running Training
33.4 Jumps Training
33.5 Throws Training
References
34: Management of Track and Field Injuries: Rehabilitation and Return to Sport After Injury in Track and Field Athletes
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Definition of Return to Sport
34.3 Injury Characteristics
34.3.1 Injury Analysis
34.3.2 Sports Science and Medicine Team
34.3.3 Training Load
34.3.4 Biomechanics
34.4 Athlete Characteristics
34.5 Aspects of Rehabilitation
34.5.1 General Principles
34.6 Strength and Sport-specific Exercises
34.6.1 Nutritional Aspects
34.7 Aspects in Final RTS Decision
34.7.1 Clinical Testing
34.7.2 Psychological Readiness
34.7.3 Imaging
34.7.4 Decision to Return to Sport
34.7.5 Secondary Prevention
References
Correction to: Management of Track and Field Injuries
Correction to: G. L. Canata et al. (eds.), Management of Track and Field Injuries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60216-1