Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland

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Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutriti ...
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 - Plants
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Plant groups
1.2.1 Annuals
1.2.2 Biennials
1.2.3 Perennials
1.2.4 Monocotyledons versus dicotyledons
1.3 Plant structure
1.3.1 The root system
1.3.1.1 The tap root or primary system
1.3.1.2 The adventitious root system
1.3.1.3 Root structure
1.3.2 The stem
1.3.2.1 Modified stems
1.3.3 The leaf
1.3.3.1 Modified leaves
1.3.4 The inflorescence
1.3.5 The flower
1.4 Plant physiology
1.4.1 Transpiration
1.4.2 Conduction
1.4.3 Translocation
1.4.4 Osmosis
1.4.5 Uptake of water
1.4.6 Uptake of nutrients
1.4.7 Photosynthesis
1.4.8 Respiration
1.4.9 Reproduction
1.4.9.1 Pollination
1.4.9.2 Fertilisation
1.4.9.3 Asexual reproduction
1.5 Seeds
1.5.1 Dicotyledon
1.5.2 Monocotyledon
1.5.3 Germination
1.5.4 Germination of the bean—the dicotyledon
1.5.5 Germination of wheat—the monocotyledon
1.6 Plant requirements
1.6.1 Warmth
1.6.2 Light
1.6.3 Water
1.6.4 Carbon dioxide
1.6.5 Oxygen
1.6.6 Chemical elements required by plants
1.7 Legumes and nitrogen fixation
1.8 The control of plant growth and development
1.8.1 Plant hormones
1.8.2 Phototropism
1.8.3 Geotropism
1.8.4 Hydrotropism
1.8.5 Thigmotropism
1.8.6 The effect of light
1.8.6.1 Short day (long night) plants
1.8.6.2 Long day (short night) plants
1.8.6.3 Day neutral plants
1.9 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
2 - Climate and weather
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Solar radiation
2.3 Rainfall
2.4 Air and soil temperature
2.5 Effect of weather on soils and crops
2.6 Human caused climate change
2.7 Future climate change predictions
2.8 Impact of climate change on crop production
2.9 Sources of agriculture emissions
2.10 Potential for cropping systems to achieve net zero carbon emissions
2.11 Summary
2.12 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
3 - Soil health and management
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Soil health
3.1.2 Soil characteristics
3.2 Soil formation
3.2.1 Parent rock materials
3.2.2 Some other soil forming deposits
3.2.3 Weathering of rocks
3.2.4 Other factors in soil formation
3.3 Soil composition and properties
3.3.1 Mineral matter and soil texture
3.3.2 Soil structure
3.3.3 Organic matter
3.3.4 Water in the soil
3.3.5 Soil aeration
3.3.6 Soil microorganisms (microflora and microfauna)
3.3.7 Soil meso- and macrofauna
3.4 Farming and managing different soil types
3.4.1 Clay soils
3.4.1.1 Characteristics
3.4.1.2 Management
3.4.1.3 Cropping
3.4.2 Sandy soils
3.4.2.1 Characteristics
3.4.2.2 Management
3.4.2.3 Cropping
3.4.3 Loams
3.4.3.1 Characteristics
3.4.3.2 Management
3.4.3.3 Cropping
3.4.4 Silty soils
3.4.4.1 Characteristics
3.4.4.2 Management
3.4.4.3 Cropping
3.4.5 Chalk and limestone soils
3.4.5.1 Characteristics
3.4.5.2 Management
3.4.5.3 Cropping
3.4.6 Peat and peaty soils
3.4.6.1 Characteristics
3.4.6.2 Management
3.4.6.3 Cropping
3.5 Soil fertility and productivity
3.5.1 Soil erosion and runoff
3.5.1.1 Wind erosion and control
3.5.1.2 Water erosion, runoff and control
3.5.2 Soil acidity and liming
3.5.2.1 pH, acidity and cropping
3.5.2.2 Lime requirement and its benefits
3.5.2.3 Materials commonly used for liming soils
3.5.2.4 Lime application, costs and losses
3.6 Evaluating soil health on the farm
3.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
4 - Fertilisers and manures
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Crop nutrient requirements
4.3 Major nutrients
4.3.1 Nitrogen
4.3.1.1 Soil nitrogen
4.3.1.2 Loss of nitrogen
4.3.2 Phosphorus
4.3.2.1 Soil phosphorus
4.3.2.2 Loss of phosphorus
4.3.3 Potassium
4.3.3.1 Soil potassium
4.3.4 Sulphur, magnesium and calcium
4.4 Micronutrients (trace elements)
4.4 Micronutrients (trace elements)
4.5 Assessment of soil nutrient content
4.6 Assessment of crop nutrient content
4.7 Terminology and formulation of fertiliser products
4.8 Fertiliser products and nutrient supply
4.8.1 Nitrogen fertilisers
4.8.2 Phosphorus fertilisers
4.8.3 Potassium fertilisers
4.8.4 Sulphur fertilisers
4.8.5 Magnesium fertilisers
4.9 Fertilisers and nutrient supply
4.9.1 Plant nutrient requirements
4.9.2 Nutrient cost comparison
4.10 Fluid (liquid) fertilisers
4.10.1 Solutions
4.10.2 Suspensions
4.10.3 ‘Distressed’ fertiliser
4.11 Application of fertilisers
4.12 Organic materials
4.12.1 Effective nutrient utilisation
4.12.2 Livestock manures
4.12.2.1 Farmyard manure (FYM)
4.12.2.2 Poultry manure
4.12.2.3 Slurry and liquid manure
4.12.3 Other organic materials
4.12.3.1 Sewage sludge (biosolids)
4.12.3.2 Digestate
4.12.3.3 Compost
4.12.3.4 Waste-derived materials
4.12.3.5 Cereal straw
4.12.3.6 Seaweed
4.13 Fertilisers, organic materials and the environment
4.14 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
5 - Weeds of farm crops
5.1 The impact of weeds
5.1.1 Success of plants as weeds
5.1.1.1 Seed production
5.1.1.2 Seed spread
5.1.1.3 Time of germination
5.1.1.4 Same family as crop
5.1.1.5 Weed competitiveness
5.1.2 Assessing weed problems in the field
5.1.3 Weeds and biodiversity
5.2 Weed types and identification
5.2.1 Grass weeds
5.2.1.1 Other grass weeds
5.2.2 Broad-leaved weeds
5.3 Management of weeds: general
5.3.1 Methods of weed management
5.3.2 Herbicides—modes of action
5.3.3 Herbicide choice
5.4 Herbicide resistance
5.4.1 Mechanisms of herbicide resistance
5.4.2 Management of herbicide resistant weeds
5.5 Spraying with herbicides: precautions
5.6 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
6 - Diseases of farm crops
6.1 Introduction to plant diseases and disorders
6.1.1 Key terminology
6.2 Disease symptoms
6.3 Some important types of plant pathogens
6.3.1 Fungi
6.3.1.1 Fungal infection
6.3.1.2 Reproduction
6.3.1.3 Fungal survival and dispersal
6.3.2 Oomycetes (water moulds)
6.3.3 Plasmodiophoromycetes (slime moulds)
6.3.4 Viruses
6.3.5 Bacteria
6.4 Abiotic disorders
6.4.1 Lack of essential plant foods (mineral/nutrient deficiency)
6.4.2 Physiological diseases (stress)
6.4.3 Herbicide damage
6.5 The control of plant diseases
6.5.1 Non-chemical methods of control
6.5.2 Chemical control—fungicides
6.5.2.1 Protectant fungicides
6.5.2.2 Systemic fungicides
6.6 Fungicide resistance
6.7 Management of specific diseases of field crops
6.8 Key points
6.8 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
7 - Pests
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Invertebrate pests
7.2.1 Insects
7.2.2 Nematodes (eelworms)
7.2.3 Molluscs
7.2.4 Mites
7.3 Vertebrate crop pests
7.3.1 Birds
7.3.2 Mammals
7.4 Damage types
7.5 Integrated pest management (IPM)
7.5.1 Cultural control
7.5.2 Biological control
7.5.3 Biopesticides
7.5.4 Chemical control
7.6 Pesticide classification
7.6.1 Insecticides
7.6.2 Nematicides
7.6.3 Molluscicides
7.6.4 Acaricides
7.6.5 Pesticide resistance
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
7.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
8 - Sustainable crop production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Crop production techniques
8.2.1 Drainage
8.2.1.1 Ditches and open drains
8.2.1.2 Underground drains
8.2.1.3 Underground piped drains
8.2.1.4 Underground drains—mole drainage
8.2.2 Seedbed preparation
8.2.2.1 Sub-surface restructuring
8.2.2.2 Inversion tillage (ploughing)
8.2.2.3 Non-inversion (minimum tillage)
8.2.2.4 Strip-tillage
8.2.2.5 Direct drilling
8.2.3 Sowing
8.2.4 Crop rotations
8.2.5 The use of cover cropping and companion cropping in rotations
8.2.6 Integrated pest management
8.2.7 Crop nutrition
8.2.8 Irrigation
8.2.8.1 Soil water availability
8.2.8.2 Timing and sources of irrigation
8.2.8.3 Application of irrigation
8.3 Drivers of change in crop production
8.3.1 UK agricultural policy
8.3.2 Encouraging biodiversity
8.3.3 Protection of soils
8.3.4 Protection of water
8.3.5 Climate change and ‘net zero’
8.3.5.1 Reducing emissions from arable agriculture
8.3.6 Food safety and security
8.4 Whole farm approaches to sustainability
8.4.1 Regenerative farming
8.4.2 Agroforestry
8.4.3 Integrating livestock into arable rotations
8.5 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
9 - Precision crop production
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Obtaining georeferenced data
9.2.1 Remote sensing
9.2.2 Machine and field based sensors
9.2.2.1 Crop sensing
9.2.2.2 Soil sensors
9.2.2.3 Yield monitors
9.2.2.4 Field walking
9.2.2.5 Weather
9.3 Storing and analysing georeferenced data
9.4 Using georeferenced data
9.4.1 Auto-steering and controlled traffic farming
9.4.2 Controlled traffic farming
9.4.3 Financial
9.4.4 Variable rate sowing
9.4.5 Variable rate nutrient application
9.4.6 Variable rate pesticide application
9.4.7 Environmental
9.5 Autonomous agriculture
9.6 Barriers to the adoption of precision farming
9.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
10 - Organic crop husbandry
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Achieving organic status
10.2.1 UK organic standards
10.2.2 The conversion period
10.3 Rotations
10.4 Soil and plant nutrition
10.4.1 Inorganic fertilisers
10.4.2 Organic manures
10.4.3 Nitrogen sources
10.5 Weed control
10.5.1 Rotations and cropping
10.5.2 Variety selection
10.5.3 Time of sowing
10.5.4 Seed rates and crop density
10.5.5 Cultivations
10.5.6 Flame or thermal weeding
10.5.7 Other methods of weed control
10.6 Disease control
10.7 Pest control
10.8 Crop management examples
10.8.1 Winter wheat
10.8.2 Potatoes
10.8.3 Field vegetables, e.g., cabbage
10.9 Other systems
10.10 Organic farming and the environment
10.11 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
11 - Plant breeding and seed production
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Principles of genetics
11.1.2 A brief history of plant breeding
11.2 Plant breeding methods
11.2.1 Conventional plant breeding
11.2.2 Molecular markers
11.2.3 Hybrid varieties
11.2.4 Genetic modification
11.2.5 New breeding technologies
11.2.6 Pre-breeding and plant genetic resources
11.3 Plant breeding targets
11.3.1 Breeding for yield
11.3.2 Breeding for quality
11.3.3 Breeding for disease and pest resistance and tolerance
11.3.4 Breeding forage crops
11.3.5 Breeding potatoes and sugar beet
11.3.6 Breeding fresh produce
11.4 Seed quality
11.4.1 Variety registration and seed certification
11.4.2 Seed production
11.4.3 Farm-saved seed
11.5 Breeding for organic, agroecology and regenerative agriculture
11.6 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
12 - World cropping systems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Global demand
12.3 Efficiency of production
12.4 Global trends
12.5 Climatic requirements
12.6 Land use
12.7 Threats to global production - losses to yield attainment
12.8 Post-harvest losses
12.9 Most important crops grown globally
12.9.1 Cereals (crops grown principally for carbohydrates and as an energy source)
12.9.1.1 Wheat
12.9.1.2 Maize
12.9.1.3 Rice
12.9.1.4 Barley
12.9.1.5 Sorghum
12.9.1.6 Millet
12.9.1.7 Rye
12.10 Pulses: crops grown primarily for protein
12.10.1 Soybeans
12.11 Oil seeds: crops grown primarily for oil
12.12 Crops grown primarily for export: cash crops
12.12.1 Tea, coffee and cocoa
12.12.2 Vanilla
12.12.3 Sugar cane and sugar beet production
12.13 Future challenges for global crop production
12.14 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
13 - Cereals
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Cereal identification
13.1.2 Cereal growth and development
13.1.3 Components of yield in cereals
13.1.4 Grain quality in cereals
13.1.5 Harvesting
13.1.6 Grain-drying
13.1.7 Grain storage
13.1.7.1 Dry grain
13.1.7.2 Moist grain
13.1.8 Cereal straw
13.2 Wheat
13.2.1 Markets and quality
13.2.1.1 Milling wheat
13.2.1.2 Animal feed
13.2.1.3 Export
13.2.1.4 Bioethanol
13.2.2 Wheat agronomy
13.2.2.1 Site selection
13.2.2.2 Rotation
13.2.2.3 Varieties
13.2.2.4 Seed treatment
13.2.2.5 Seedbed preparation
13.2.2.6 Time of sowing
13.2.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
13.2.2.8 Crop nutrition
13.2.2.9 Pests
13.2.2.10 Diseases
13.2.2.11 Weeds
13.2.2.12 Plant growth regulators
13.2.2.13 Typical crop protection programme for winter wheat
13.2.2.14 Harvesting
13.2.2.15 Yield
13.3 Durum wheat
13.3.1 Durum wheat agronomy
13.3.1.1 Soils and climate
13.3.1.2 Seedbeds and sowing
13.3.1.3 Time of sowing
13.3.1.4 Varieties
13.3.1.5 Seed rates
13.3.1.6 Fertilisers
13.3.1.7 Crop protection
13.3.1.8 Harvesting
13.3.1.9 Yield
13.4 Barley
13.4.1 Markets and quality
13.4.1.1 Animal feed
13.4.1.2 Malting
13.4.2 Barley agronomy
13.4.2.1 Site selection
13.4.2.2 Rotation
13.4.2.3 Varieties
13.4.2.4 Seed treatment
13.4.2.5 Seedbed preparation
13.4.2.6 Time of sowing
13.4.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
13.4.2.8 Crop nutrition
13.4.2.9 Pests
13.4.2.10 Diseases
13.4.2.11 Weeds
13.4.2.12 Plant growth regulators
13.4.2.13 Typical crop protection programme for barley
13.4.2.14 Harvesting
13.4.2.15 Yield
13.5 Oats
13.5.1 Oat agronomy
13.5.1.1 Site selection
13.5.1.2 Rotation
13.5.1.3 Varieties
13.5.1.4 Seed treatments
13.5.1.5 Seedbed preparation
13.5.1.6 Time of sowing
13.5.1.7 Seed rates and plant population
13.5.1.8 Crop nutrition
13.5.1.9 Micronutrients
13.5.1.10 Pests
13.5.1.11 Diseases
13.5.1.12 Weeds
13.5.1.13 Growth regulators
13.5.1.14 Harvesting
13.5.1.15 Yield
13.6 Rye
13.6.1 Rye agronomy
13.6.1.1 Site selection
13.6.1.2 Rotation
13.6.1.3 Varieties
13.6.1.4 Seed treatments
13.6.1.5 Seedbeds preparation
13.6.1.6 Time of sowing
13.6.1.7 Seed rate
13.6.1.8 Crop nutrition
13.6.1.9 Crop protection
13.6.1.10 Harvesting
13.6.1.11 Yield
13.7 Triticale
13.7.1 Triticale agronomy
13.7.1.1 Site selection
13.7.1.2 Rotation
13.7.1.3 Varieties
13.7.1.4 Seedbed preparation
13.7.1.5 Seed rate
13.7.1.6 Time of sowing
13.7.1.7 Crop nutrition
13.7.1.8 Crop protection
13.7.1.9 Harvesting
13.7.1.10 Yield
13.8 Maize for grain
13.9 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
14 - Oilseeds and pulses
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Oilseed rape
14.2.1 Site selection
14.2.2 Rotation
14.2.3 Varieties
14.2.4 Seed treatment
14.2.5 Seedbed preparation
14.2.6 Time of sowing
14.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
14.2.8 Crop development
14.2.9 Fertilisers
14.2.10 Crop protection
14.2.10.1 Pests
14.2.10.2 Diseases
14.2.10.3 Weeds
14.2.10.4 Typical crop protection programme for winter oilseed rape
14.2.11 Growth regulation
14.2.12 Harvesting
14.2.13 Drying and storage
14.2.14 Yield
14.3 Linseed
14.3.1 Site selection
14.3.2 Rotation
14.3.3 Varieties
14.3.4 Seed treatment
14.3.5 Seedbed preparation
14.3.6 Time of sowing
14.3.7 Seed rates and plant population
14.3.8 Crop development
14.3.9 Fertilisers
14.3.10 Crop protection
14.3.10.1 Pests
14.3.10.2 Diseases
14.3.10.3 Weeds
14.3.11 Harvesting
14.3.12 Drying and storage
14.3.13 Yield
14.4 Sunflowers
14.5 Soya beans
14.6 Combinable pulses
14.6.1 Field beans
14.6.1.1 Site selection
14.6.1.2 Rotation
14.6.1.3 Varieties
14.6.1.4 Seed treatment
14.6.1.5 Seedbed preparation
14.6.1.6 Time of sowing
14.6.1.7 Seed rates
14.6.1.8 Crop development
14.6.1.9 Fertilisers
14.6.1.10 Crop protection
14.6.1.10.1 Pests
14.6.1.10.2 Diseases
14.6.1.10.3 Weeds
14.6.1.10.4 Typical crop protection programme for spring field beans
14.6.1.11 Harvesting
14.6.1.12 Drying and storage
14.6.1.13 Yield
14.6.2 Dry harvested peas
14.6.2.1 Types of peas
14.6.2.1.1 White flowered
14.6.2.1.2 Coloured flowered
14.6.2.2 Site selection
14.6.2.3 Rotation
14.6.2.4 Varieties
14.6.2.5 Seed treatment
14.6.2.6 Seedbed preparation
14.6.2.7 Time of sowing
14.6.2.8 Seed rates
14.6.2.9 Crop development
14.6.2.10 Fertilisers
14.6.2.11 Crop protection
14.6.2.11.1 Pests
14.6.2.11.2 Diseases
14.6.2.11.3 Weeds
14.6.2.12 Harvesting
14.6.2.13 Drying and storage
14.6.2.14 Yield
14.6.3 Lupins
14.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
15 - Root crops
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Potatoes
15.2.1 Potato marketing and the supply chain
15.2.2 Site selection
15.2.3 Rotation
15.2.4 Varieties
15.2.5 Seed treatment
15.2.6 Crop advancement – chitting (breaking dormancy)
15.2.7 Seedbed preparation
15.2.8 Timing of cultivations and planting
15.2.9 Seed rates and seed spacing
15.2.10 Planting
15.2.11 Fertiliser
15.2.12 Crop development
15.2.13 Crop protection – pests (see chapter 7)
15.2.14 Weed control
15.2.14.1 Pre-planting
15.2.14.2 Pre-emergence of potato shoots
15.2.14.3 Post-emergence of potato shoots
15.2.15 Haulm (leaves and stems) destruction
15.2.16 Disease control (see also Chapter 6)
15.2.16.1 Blight - Phytophthora infestans
15.2.17 Physiological disorders
15.2.18 Irrigation
15.2.19 Harvesting
15.2.20 Storage
15.2.21 Grading
15.2.22 Yield
15.3 Sugar beet
15.3.1 Soils and climate
15.3.2 Place in rotation
15.3.3 Seedbed preparation
15.3.4 Varieties
15.3.5 Manures and fertilisers
15.3.5.1 Nitrogen
15.3.5.2 Phosphate, potassium and magnesium
15.3.5.3 Sodium
15.3.5.4 Sulphur
15.3.5.5 Manganese and boron
15.3.5.6 Lime and pH
15.3.6 Seeds and sowing
15.3.6.1 Seed rate
15.3.6.2 Timing of sowing
15.3.6.3 Precision drilling
15.3.6.4 Prevention of wind damage
15.3.7 Weed control
15.3.8 Disease & pest control
15.3.8.1 Disease control
15.3.8.2 Pest control (see Chapter 7)
15.3.9 Irrigation
15.3.10 Weed beet
15.3.11 Harvesting
15.3.12 Storage
15.3.13 Yield
15.4 Key points
Potatoes
Sugar beet
Sources of further information and advice
16 - Energy and industrial crops
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Global drivers
16.1.2 United Kingdom policy
16.1.2.1 Biofuels
16.1.2.2 Biomass
16.1.2.3 Anaerobic digestion
16.2 Energy crops
16.2.1 Specific crops: miscanthus
16.2.1.1 Growth cycle
Where can it be grown?
Planting
Nutrition
16.2.1.2 Crop protection
16.2.1.3 Harvest and storage
16.2.2 Short rotation coppice
16.2.2.1 Growth cycle
Where can it be grown?
Planting
Nutrition
16.2.2.2 Crop protection
16.2.2.3 Harvest and storage
16.2.3 Wetland crops
16.2.4 Crops for anaerobic digestion (AD)
16.2.5 Woodland biomass
16.2.6 Liquid biofuel crops
16.3 Industrial crops
16.3.1 Lubricant oil crops
16.3.2 Fibre crops
16.3.2.1 Hemp (Cannabis sativa)
16.3.2.2 Flax (Linum usitatissimum)
16.3.3 Pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, essential oils and cosmetics
16.3.4 Carbohydrate crops
16.4 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
17 - Fresh produce crops
17.1 Growing fresh produce crops
17.1.1 Value and volume
17.1.2 Assurance and food safety
17.1.3 Use of integrated pest management (IPM)
17.1.4 Protected production systems
17.1.5 Automation
17.1.5.1 Transplanting
17.1.5.2 Weeding
17.1.5.3 Harvesting
17.2 Fresh peas
17.2.1 Soils and climate
17.2.2 Cultivations
17.2.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.2.4 Rotation
17.2.5 Pests and diseases
17.2.6 Weed control
17.2.7 Nutrition
17.2.8 Irrigation
17.2.9 Harvest and storage
17.3 Broad beans
17.3.1 Soils and climate
17.3.2 Drilling/planting and timings
17.3.3 Rotation
17.3.4 Pests and diseases
17.3.5 Weed control
17.3.6 Nutrition
17.3.7 Irrigation
17.3.8 Harvest and storage
17.4 Green beans
17.4.1 Soils and climate
17.4.2 Cultivations
17.4.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.4.4 Rotation
17.4.5 Pests and diseases
17.4.6 Weed control
17.4.7 Nutrition
17.4.8 Irrigation
17.4.9 Harvest and storage
17.5 Lettuce
17.5.1 Soils and climate
17.5.2 Cultivations
17.5.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.5.4 Rotation
17.5.5 Pests and diseases
17.5.6 Weed control
17.5.7 Nutrition
17.5.8 Irrigation
17.5.9 Harvest and storage
17.6 Baby leaves and herbs
17.6.1 Soils and climate
17.6.2 Cultivations
17.6.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.6.4 Rotation
17.6.5 Pests and diseases
17.6.6 Weed control
17.6.7 Nutrition
17.6.8 Irrigation
17.6.9 Harvest and storage
17.7 Cabbages
17.7.1 Soils and climate
17.7.2 Cultivations
17.7.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.7.4 Rotation
17.7.5 Pests and diseases
17.7.6 Weed control
17.7.7 Nutrition
17.7.8 Irrigation
17.7.9 Harvest and storage
17.8 Broccoli
17.8.1 Soils and climate
17.8.2 Cultivations
17.8.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.8.4 Rotation
17.8.5 Pests and diseases
17.8.6 Weed control
17.8.7 Nutrition
17.8.8 Irrigation
17.8.9 Harvest and storage
17.9 Cauliflowers
17.9.1 Soils and climate
17.9.2 Cultivations
17.9.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.9.4 Rotation
17.9.5 Pests and diseases
17.9.6 Weed control
17.9.7 Nutrition
17.9.8 Irrigation
17.9.9 Harvest and storage
17.10 Brussels sprouts
17.10.1 Soils and climate
17.10.2 Cultivations
17.10.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.10.4 Rotation
17.10.5 Pests and diseases
17.10.6 Weed control
17.10.7 Nutrition
17.10.8 Irrigation
17.10.9 Harvest and storage
17.11 Bulb onions
17.11.1 Soils and climate
17.11.2 Cultivations
17.11.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.11.4 Rotation
17.11.5 Pests and diseases
17.11.6 Weed control
17.11.7 Nutrition
17.11.8 Irrigation
17.11.9 Harvest and storage
17.12 Leeks
17.12.1 Soils and climate
17.12.2 Cultivations
17.12.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.12.4 Rotation
17.12.5 Pests and diseases
17.12.6 Weed control
17.12.7 Nutrition
17.12.8 Irrigation
17.12.9 Harvest and storage
17.13 Carrots
17.13.1 Soils and climate
17.13.2 Cultivation
17.13.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.13.4 Rotation
17.13.5 Pests and diseases
17.13.6 Weed control
17.13.7 Nutrition
17.13.8 Irrigation
17.13.9 Harvest and storage
17.14 Edible swede and turnips
17.14.1 Soils and climate
17.14.2 Cultivations
17.14.3 Drilling/planting and timings
17.14.4 Rotation
17.14.5 Pests and diseases
17.14.6 Weed control
17.14.7 Nutrition
17.14.8 Irrigation
17.14.9 Harvest and storage
17.15 Strawberries
17.15.1 Soils and climate
17.15.2 Drilling/planting and timings
17.15.3 Rotation
17.15.4 Pests and diseases
17.15.5 Weed control
17.15.6 Nutrition
17.15.7 Irrigation
17.15.8 Harvest and storage
17.16 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
18 - Arable forage crops
18.1 Crops grown for ensiling
18.1.1 Forage maize
18.1.1.1 Site selection
18.1.1.2 Seedbed preparation
18.1.1.3 Choice of variety
18.1.1.4 Seed treatment
18.1.1.5 Seed rate and sowing date
18.1.1.6 Sowing maize under plastic film
18.1.1.7 Undersowing forage maize
18.1.1.8 Fertilisers
18.1.1.9 Micronutrients
18.1.1.10 Crop protection
18.1.1.11 Harvesting
18.1.1.12 Yields
18.1.1.13 Cob-only maize harvesting options
18.1.1.14 Environmental concerns
18.1.2 Other cereals as silage crops
18.1.3 Legumes grown for ensiling
18.2 Root crops grown for lifting and storage or grazing in-situ
18.2.1 Fodder beet
18.2.1.1 Site selection
18.2.1.2 Seedbed preparation
18.2.1.3 Choice of variety
18.2.1.4 Seed treatment
18.2.1.5 Seed rate and sowing date
18.2.1.6 Fertilisers
18.2.1.7 Micronutrients
18.2.1.8 Crop protection
18.2.1.9 Harvesting
18.2.1.10 Grazing in-situ
18.2.1.11 Yield
18.2.2 Swedes and turnips
18.2.2.1 Site selection
18.2.2.2 Seedbed preparation
18.2.2.3 Choice of varieties
18.2.2.4 Seed rate and sowing date
18.2.2.5 Manures and fertilisers
18.2.2.6 Micronutrients
18.2.2.7 Crop protection
18.2.2.8 Harvesting swedes
18.2.2.9 Yield
18.3 Leafy crops grown for grazing
18.3.1 Kale, forage rape and hybrids (leafy brassicas)
18.3.1.1 Site selection
18.3.1.2 Seedbed preparation
18.3.1.3 Choice of varieties
18.3.1.4 Seed rate and sowing date
18.3.1.5 Fertilisers
18.3.1.6 Crop protection
18.3.1.7 Grazing in-situ
18.3.1.8 Yield
18.3.2 Stubble turnips
18.3.2.1 Site selection
18.3.2.2 Seedbed preparation
18.3.2.3 Choice of varieties
18.3.2.4 Seed rate and sowing date
18.3.2.5 Fertilisers
18.3.2.6 Crop protection
18.3.2.7 Grazing in-situ
18.3.2.8 Yield
18.3.3 Winter cereals as grazing crops
18.4 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
19 - Introduction to grass production/characteristics of grassland and the important species
19.1 Types of grassland
19.1.1 Uncultivated grasslands
19.1.1.1 Rough mountain and hill grazing
19.1.1.2 Lowland heaths
19.1.1.3 Calcareous downland
19.1.1.4 Wetland and fen areas in east and south-west England
19.1.1.5 Maritime swards
19.1.2 Cultivated grasslands
19.1.2.1 Permanent pasture
19.1.2.2 Temporary grassland or ‘leys’
19.2 The nutritive value of grassland herbage
19.2.1 The effects of grass maturity
19.2.2 Digestibility (‘D value’)
19.3 Identification of grasses
19.3.1 Grass species of economic value
19.3.2 Identification of vegetative parts of main sown grass species
19.3.2.1 Stems
19.3.2.2 Leaves
19.3.2.3 Other structures
19.3.3 The inflorescence or flower head
19.4 Identification of legumes
19.4.1 Leaves
19.4.1.1 Stipules
19.4.1.2 Flowers
19.5 Grasses of economic importance
19.5.1 Types of grass varieties
19.5.2 Details of individual species
19.5.2.1 Short duration ryegrasses
19.5.2.2 Westerwolds ryegrass
19.5.2.3 Italian ryegrass (Fig. 19.15)
19.5.2.4 Hybrid ryegrass
19.5.2.5 Perennial ryegrass—early, intermediate and late varieties (Fig. 19.15)
19.5.2.6 Diploids and tetraploids
19.5.2.7 Festulolium
19.5.2.8 Timothy
19.5.2.9 Cocksfoot
19.5.2.10 Meadow fescue
19.5.2.11 Other grasses including non-sown grasses
19.6 Forage legumes of economic importance
19.6.1 Red clovers
19.6.2 White clovers
19.6.2.1 Clover blends
Lucerne (or alfalfa)
19.6.3 Sainfoin
19.6.4 Bird's-foot trefoil or lotus
19.6.5 Alsike
19.6.6 Other forage legumes
19.7 Herbs
19.8 Grass and legume seed mixtures
19.8.1 Traditional mixtures
19.8.2 Modern seed mixtures
19.8.2.1 Short-term mixtures
19.8.2.2 Medium-term cutting/grazing mixtures
19.8.2.3 Long-term grazing mixtures
19.8.2.4 Herbal leys
19.8.2.5 Mixtures including lucerne and sainfoin
19.8.2.6 Mixtures suitable for equine use
19.8.2.7 Mixtures suitable for agri-environment schemes
19.9 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
20 - Establishing and improving grassland
20.1 Establishing leys
20.1.1 Terminology
20.1.1.1 When is a reseed necessary?
20.1.2 Spring sowing
20.1.3 Late summer/early autumn sowing
20.1.4 Direct sowing
20.1.5 Direct drilling
20.1.6 Undersowing
20.1.7 Weed, pest and disease control in establishing leys
20.1.8 Early management
20.2 Grassland improvement and renovation
20.2.1 Problem identification in existing grassland
20.2.2 Drainage
20.2.3 Soil structure and health
20.2.4 Soil pH
20.2.5 Phosphorus and potassium
20.2.6 Control of perennial weeds
20.3 Improving a sward by changing the management
20.4 Improving a sward by renovation
20.5 Fertilisers and manures for grassland
20.5.1 Liming grassland
20.5.2 Nitrogen
20.5.2.1 Optimum nitrogen
20.5.2.2 Grass and legume swards
20.5.2.3 Organic manures and slurry
20.5.2.4 Timing of nitrogen applications
20.5.3 Phosphorus and potassium
20.5.4 Other nutrients
20.5.4.1 Magnesium (Mg)
20.5.4.2 Sodium (Na)
20.5.4.3 Sulphur (S)
20.6 Irrigation of grassland
20.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
21 - Grazing management
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Stocking rate
21.3 Principles of grazing management
21.3.1 Animal potential
21.3.2 Grass potential
21.3.3 Sward measurement
21.3.4 Dry matter yield estimates
21.3.5 Stocking rates and density at grass
21.4 Grazing systems
21.4.1 Strip grazing
21.4.2 Rotational or paddock grazing
21.4.3 Continuous grazing (not to be confused with set stocking)
21.4.4 Mixed grazing
21.4.5 Zero grazing
21.4.6 Storage feeding
21.5 Strategies to minimise parasitism at grass
21.6 Measuring and setting targets for grassland production and output from grassland
21.7 Future developments
21.8 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
22 - Conservation of grass and forage crops
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Reasons for the conservation of forage and forage conservation techniques
22.1.2 Forage conservation techniques
22.1.3 The quality of conserved forage
22.1.4 Choice of forage conservation technique
22.1.5 Choice of forage conservation strategy
22.1.6 Reasons for the dominance of silage
22.1.7 Environmental threat of silage effluent
22.2 The silage-making process
22.2.1 Silage fermentation
22.3 Crops for silage making
22.3.1 Grasses
22.3.2 Legumes
22.3.3 Forage maize
22.3.4 Other cereals for ‘wholecrop’ silage
22.3.5 Alternative crops
22.4 Factors affecting silage fermentation
22.4.1 Type of crop
22.4.2 Fertiliser and manure treatment
22.4.3 Weather prior to and during harvesting
22.4.4 Minimising soil and slurry contamination
22.4.5 Field wilting
22.4.6 Forage harvesting
22.4.7 Baled silage
22.4.8 Baled ‘haylage’
22.4.9 Filling a horizontal (clamp) silo
22.4.10 Final sheeting and sealing
22.4.11 The use of silage additives
22.4.12 Respiration and aerobic spoilage at feeding
22.5 Hay
22.5.1 Traditional hay production
22.5.2 Barn-drying or conditioning
22.6 Green-crop drying
22.7 Key points
Sources of further information and advice
Soil texture assessment in the field
Nomenclature of common plants including crop plants
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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