EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. Introduction
This document summarizes the work done from April 2008 to April 2013 by CIGRE WG C4.407, Lightning Parameters for Engineering Applications. The Term of Reference (TOR) for this Working Group is found in Appendix 1. The document can be viewed as an upd...
Berger, K., Anderson, R.B., and Kroninger, H. 1975. Parameters of lightning flashes. Electra, No. 41, pp. 23-37.
Anderson, R.B., and Eriksson, A.J. 1980. Lightning parameters for engineering application. Electra, No. 69, pp. 65-102.
Anderson, R.B., and Eriksson, A.J. 1980. A summary of lightning parameters for engineering application, CIGRE 1980 Session, paper 33-06, 12 p.
It is also related to the following CIGRE reports:
CIGRE WG 33.01, Report 63. Guide to Procedures for Estimating the Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines, October 1991, 61 p.
CIGRE TF 33.01.02, Report 94, Lightning characteristics relevant for electrical engineering: Assesment of sensing, recording and mapping requirements in the light of present technological advancements, 1995, 37 p.
CIGRE TF 33.01.03, Report 118, Lightning exposure of structures and interception efficiency of air terminals, October 1997, 86 p.
CIGRE TF 33.01.02, Report 172, Characterization of lightning for applications in electric power systems, December 2000, 35 p.
CIGRE TF C4.404, Report 376, Cloud-to-ground lightning parameters derived from lightning location systems: The effects of system performance, April 2009, 117 p.
Traditional lightning parameters needed in engineering applications include lightning peak current, maximum current derivative, average current rate of rise, current risetime, current duration, charge transfer, and specific energy (action integral), a...
2. General Characterization of Lightning
In this section, we introduce the basic lightning terminology, describe different types of lightning and three basic modes of charge transfer to ground. We also briefly discuss the ground flash density, which is the primary descriptor of lightning inc...
2.1. Definitions and Terminology
Lightning can be defined as a transient, high-current (typically tens of kiloamperes) electric discharge in air whose length is measured in kilometers. The lightning discharge in its entirety, whether it strikes ground or not, is usually termed a "lig...
Each lightning stroke is composed of a downward-moving process, termed a “leader”, and an upward-moving process, termed a “return stroke”. The leader creates a conducting path between the cloud charge source region and ground and distributes electric...
The electric potential difference between a downward-moving stepped-leader tip and ground is probably some tens of megavolts, comparable to or a considerable fraction of that between the cloud charge source and ground (50 to 500 MV). When the descendi...
The kiloamperes-scale impulsive component of the current in a return stroke is often followed by a “continuing current” which has a magnitude of tens to hundreds of amperes and a duration up to hundreds of milliseconds. Continuing currents with a dura...
According to Rakov and Uman (2003), any self-propagating electrical discharge creating a channel with electrical conductivity of the order 104 S/m (comparable to that of carbon) is called a “leader”. “Streamers”, on the other hand, are characterized ...
2.2. Types of Lightning Discharges
The global lightning flash rate is some tens to a hundred flashes per second or so. The majority of lightning flashes, about three-quarters, do not involve ground. These are termed cloud flashes (discharges) and sometimes are referred to as ICs. Clo...
From the observed polarity of the charge "effectively" lowered to ground and the direction of propagation of the initial leader, four different types of lightning discharges between cloud and Earth have been identified. The term "effectively" is used...
Lightning can be artificially initiated (triggered) by launching a small rocket trailing a thin grounded or ungrounded wire toward a charged cloud overhead (the so-called rocket-and-wire triggering technique). To date, approximately 1,000 lightning f...
As noted above, positive lightning discharges are relatively rare (less than 10% of global cloud-to-ground lightning activity), but there are five situations that appear to be conducive to the more frequent occurrence of positive lightning. These situ...
Sometimes both positive and negative charges are transferred to ground during the same flash. Such flashes (not represented in Fig. 2.1) are referred to as bipolar. Bipolar lightning discharges are usually initiated from tall objects (are of upward t...
Positive and bipolar discharges are primarily discussed in Chapter 7. Upward discharges are characterized in Chapter 8.
Fig. 2.1 Four types of lightning effectively lowering cloud charge to ground. Only the initial leader is shown for each type. For each lightning-type name given below the sketch, direction indicates the direction of propagation of the initial leader a...
2.3. Three Modes of Charge Transfer to Ground
There are three possible modes of charge transfer to ground in lightning discharges that are convenient to illustrate for the case of negative subsequent strokes. In negative subsequent strokes these three modes are represented by (a) dart leader/ret...
(a) In a negative leader/return stroke sequence, the descending leader creates a conductive path between the cloud charge source region and ground and deposits negative charge along this path. The following return stroke traverses that path, moving ...
(b) The lightning continuing current can be viewed as a quasi-stationary arc between the cloud charge source region and ground. The typical arc current is tens to hundreds of amperes, and the duration is up to some hundreds of milliseconds.
(c) Lightning M-components can be viewed as perturbations (or surges) in the continuing current and in the associated channel luminosity. It appears that an M-component involves the superposition of two waves propagating in opposite directions (see ...
Fig. 2.2 Schematic representation of current versus height profiles for three modes of charge transfer to ground in negative lightning subsequent strokes: (a) dart leader/return stroke sequence, (b) continuing current, and (c) M-component. The corres...
The spatial front length for M-component waves is of the order of a kilometer (shown shorter in Fig. 2.2 for illustrative purposes), while for dart-leader and return-stroke waves the spatial front lengths are of the order of 10 and 100 m, respectively...
M components are more numerous than leader/return stroke sequences (Thottappillil et al., 1995) and can represent a threat to various objects and systems. Specifically, M-components may impart electrodynamic stresses on metallic structural elements al...
2.4. Ground Flash Density
2.5. Number of Strokes in a Downward Negative Cloud-to-Ground Flash
Table 2.1: Number of strokes per negative flash and percentage of single-stroke flashes.
2.6. Interstroke Intervals and Flash Duration
Table 2.2: Interstroke interval and flash duration (sample sizes are given in the parentheses).
One-third to one-half of all lightning discharges to earth, both single- and multiple-stroke flashes, strike ground at more than one point with the spatial separation between the channel terminations being up to many kilometres. Most measurements o...
In most cases, multiple ground terminations within a given flash are associated not with an individual multi-grounded leader but rather with the deflection of a subsequent leader from the previously formed channel. According to Thottappillil et al. (1...
According to Rakov and Uman (1990b), the percentage of subsequent leaders that create a path to ground different from that of the previous stroke path decreases rapidly with stroke order: 37% of all second leaders, 27% of all third leaders, 2% of all ...
Table. 2.3: Number of channel terminations per flash
In southern Arizona, Stall et al. (2009) observed that 59% of the time it was the second stroke that produced a new ground termination, and 27% of the time it was the third stroke (the sample size was 59). In three cases they observed new ground term...
The percentage of multi-grounded flashes exhibits significant storm-to-storm variation. Rakov and Uman (1990b) reported a range of 29% to 69% for three individual thunderstorm days, with a mean of 50%. Thottappillil et al. (1992) observed up to four d...
Kong et al. (2009) studied multiple channel terminations created by the same negative leader in China. The percentage of flashes showing this feature varied from 11% to 20% with a mean of 15% (9 out of a total of 59 flashes). It is of interest to comp...
Fig. 2.3. Histogram of the distance between the multiple terminations of 22 individual ground flashes in Florida. Adapted from Thottappillil et al. (1992).
2.8. Relative Stroke Intensity Within the Flash
Relative magnitudes of electric field peaks of first and subsequent return strokes in negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes recorded in Florida, Austria, Brazil, and Sweden were analyzed by Nag et al. (2008). On average, the electric field peak o...
Results of Nag et al. (2008) are summarized in Fig. 2.4 and Table 2.4. Also, Qie et al. (2002) found the geometric mean of first to subsequent stroke peak ratio to be 2.2 for 83 negative flashes in Gansu province, China.
Fig. 2.4. Histograms of the ratio of the first-to-subsequent-return-stroke electric field peak for multiple-stroke negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes in (a) Florida, (b) Austria, (c) Brazil, and (d) Sweden. Adapted from Nag et al. (2008).
Table 2.4: Summary of first to subsequent stroke electric field or current peak ratios estimated from different studies. Adapted from Nag et al. (2008).
Although first-stroke current peaks are typically a factor of 2 to 3 larger than subsequent-stroke current peaks, about one third of cloud-to-ground flashes contain at least one subsequent stroke with electric field peak, and, by theory, current peak,...
Table 2.5: Geometric mean values for various parameters of larger subsequent strokes in the same channel as the first stroke versus those for all subsequent strokes in the first-stroke channel. Adapted from Thottappillil et al. (1992).
2.9. Summary
3. Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from Current Measurements
3.1. Peak current – “Classical” Distributions
Fig. 3.1. Cumulative statistical distributions of lightning peak currents, giving percent of cases exceeding abscissa value, from direct measurements in Switzerland (Berger, 1972; Berger et al. 1975). The distributions are assumed to be log-normal and...
Fig. 3.2. Cumulative statistical distributions of peak currents (percent values on the vertical axis should be subtracted from 100% to obtain the probability to exceed, as in Fig. 3.1, the peak current value on the horizontal axis) for negative first ...
Table 3.1. Sample sizes for “global“ peak current distributions for negative first strokes.
Table 3.2. The IEEE peak current distributions given by equations (3.5) and (3.6).
3.2. Peak Current – Recent Direct Measurements
Table 3.5. Lightning Current Parameters for Negative Flashes (Berger et al., 1975)
Fig. 3.3. Description of lightning current waveform parameters. The waveform corresponds to the typical negative first return stroke. Adapted from CIGRE Document 63 (1991) and IEEE Std 1410-2010.
Table 3.6. Lightning current parameters (based on Berger’s data) recommend by CIGRÉ Document 63 (1991) and IEEE Std 1410-2010.
Table 3.7. Current waveform parameters for negative strokes in rocket-triggered lightning flashes.
Fig. 3.4. Relation between the peak value of current rate of rise and peak current from triggered-lightning experiments conducted at the NASA Kennedy Space Center, Florida, in 1985, 1987, and 1988 and in France in 1986. The regression line for each ...
3.4. Correlations Between the Parameters
Table 3.8. Correlation coefficients between current waveshape parameters defined in Fig. 3.3. Adapted from Anderson and Eriksson (1980).
3.5. Peak Current Inferred from Measured Electromagnetic Field
Fig. 3.5. NLDN reported peak currents vs. those directly measured at Camp Blanding, Florida, for two time periods, 2001-2003 (left panel) and 2004-2009 (right panel). In 2001-2003, a power-law propagation model was employed, while for most of the data...
Fig. 3.6. EUCLID-reported peak currents (IEUCLID) vs. those directly measured at the Gaisberg Tower, Austria (IGB). (a) 0.23 field-to-current conversion factor, no propagation model (n = 385); (b) 0.185 field-to-current conversion factor, exponential ...
3.7. Summary
4. Continuing Currents
4.1. Presence of Continuing Currents
Table 4.1: Summary of the occurrence of CC in negative and positive strokes and flashes (sample sizes are given in the parentheses).
4.2. Distribution of Continuing Current Duration
Fig. 4.1 Cumulative probability distributions of CC durations greater than or equal to 3 ms in negative and positive strokes.
Table 4.2: Summary of CC duration for positive and negative CG flashes.
4.3. Return Stroke Peak Current Preceding and Following Continuing Current
Fig. 4.2 Peak current (Ip) versus CC duration for 586 negative strokes and 141 positive strokes.
4.4. Continuing Current Waveshapes and M-components
Fig. 4.3 Example of continuing current with M-components. The M-components are indicated by arrows.
4.5. Continuing Current Magnitude and Charge Transfer
Fig. 4.4 Cumulative probability distribution of CC magnitudes for negative CG flashes.
4.6. Summary
5 Lightning Return Stroke Propagation Speed
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Return-Stroke Speed Averaged Over the Visible Part of the Channel
5.3. Return-Stroke Speed in the Lowest 100 m of the Channel
Table 5.2. Return-stroke speeds (x108 m/s) estimated tracking the 20% point on the light-pulse front for triggered lightning flash F0336 (Olsen et al., 2004).
5.4. Variation of Return-Stroke Speed with Height
5.5. Return-Stroke Speed vs. Peak Current
5.6. Summary
6 Equivalent Impedance of the Lightning Channel
6.1. General Considerations
Fig. 6.1. Engineering models of lightning strikes (a) to lumped grounding impedance and (b) to a tall grounded object, in which lightning is represented by the Norton equivalent circuit, labeled ‘‘source’’. The source output currents injected into the...
Fig. 6.2. Lightning strikes (a) to flat ground or electrically-short object and (b) to a tall grounded object of height h, represented in each case by a lossless transmission line connected in series with a lumped voltage source generating an arbitrar...
6.2. Inferences from Experimental Data
Fig. 6.3. Typical return-stroke current waveforms of upward negative lightning recorded near the top (at 533 m), in the middle (at 272 m), and near the bottom (at 47 m) of the 540-m high Ostankino tower in Moscow. Differences in current waveforms at d...
6.3. Concluding Remarks
7. Positive and Bipolar Lightning Discharges
7.1. Introduction
7.2. General characterization
7.3. Multiplicity
Table 7.1. Occurrence of Positive Flashes With Different Number of Strokes. Adapted from Nag and Rakov (2012).
Table 7.2. Occurrence of Subsequent Strokes in Positive Flashes That Follow a Previously-Created Channel. Adapted from Nag and Rakov (2012).
7.4. Current Waveform Parameters
Table 7.3. Lightning current parameters for positive flashes. Adapted from Berger et al. (1975).
Fig. 7.1. Examples of two types of positive lightning current vs. time waveforms observed by K. Berger: (a) microsecond-scale waveform, similar to those produced by downward negative return strokes, and a sketch illustrating the lightning processes t...
7.5. Summary
8. Upward lightning discharges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of Effective Height of Tall Objects
Table 8.1. An overview of lightning studies conducted at instrumented tall objects, including effective height estimates. Adapted from Rakov (2011).
8.3 Initiation of Upward Lightning
8.4 Seasonal Occurrence of Upward Lightning
Fig. 8.1. Monthly lightning activity observed at the Gaisberg Tower from 2000 to 2007. Shaded diagram bars represent the convective season (April – August) and unshaded bars represent the cold (non-convective) season (September – March). Adapted from ...
8.5 General Characterization of Upward Negative Lightning
Fig. 8.2. Schematic current record of upward-initiated flash. Labeled are the initial continuous current (ICC) with three superimposed ICC pulses, a period of no current flow, and two return strokes (RS). Adapted from Diendorfer et al. (2009).
Table 8.2. Overall characteristics (geometric mean values) of the initial stage of natural upward and rocket-triggered negative lightning. Adapted from Miki et al. (2005), Diendorfer et al. (2009), and Diendorfer et al. (2011).
8.6 Impulsive currents in negative upward lightning
Table 8.3. Parameters (geometric mean values) of initial-stage current pulses in upward-initiated lightning. Also given are the corresponding parameters of M-component currents in rocket-triggered lightning. Adapted from Miki et al. (2005).
Table 8.4. Peak current and charge transfer (median values) of return strokes in natural upward, natural downward, and rocket-triggered lightning flashes.
8.7 Characteristics of Upward Positive Lightning
Table 8.5. Lightning current parameters (median values) of upward positive flashes. The sample size is given in the parenthesis.
8.8 Characteristics of Upward Bipolar Lightning
8.9 Summary
9. Geographical and seasonal variations in lightning parameters
9.1 Introduction
A possible dependence of lightning parameters on geographical location has been pointed out for many years, in particular the peak current of first strokes (e.g., Anderson and Eriksson, 1980; Pinto et al., 1997). However, no conclusive evidence has be...
In this section we shall discuss the possible dependence of negative cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning parameters on geographical location and season, specifically a) the return stroke peak current and front duration (for both first and subsequent stroke...
As regards positive CG lightning parameters, there is insufficient information for a reliable analysis of dependence on geographical location. It is worth mentioning that, in spite of this fact, there are evidences suggesting a relationship between so...
Although it is well known that flash density (Pinto et al., 2007; Orville et al., 2011) and polarity (Rakov and Uman, 2003; Orville et al., 2011) dramatically vary with geographical location and season, it has been a subject of controversy whether or ...
From a physical point of view, geographical or seasonal variations of lightning parameters would be caused by variations in thunderstorm electrical structure that resulted from either geographic or seasonal factors. “Geographic variations” in lightni...
To fully understand a given variation in a lightning parameter, we would need to understand how this variation could be explained in terms of thunderstorm structure. However, the complexity of the processes involved makes it difficult, in some cases,...
Due to the difficulties mentioned above, and considering the goal of this document, the results presented in this section are limited to negative CG flashes and divided into three sub-sections describing variations in: 1) return stroke peak current an...
Seasonal occurrence of upward and downward lightning in Austria is discussed in Section 8.4.
9.2 Return Stroke Peak Current and Front Duration
Direct current measurements. Direct current observations at short instrumented towers yielded the most precise measurements of first and subsequent return stroke peak current and front duration. However, in many studies the number of events is so smal...
The larger sets of first and subsequent return stoke current waveforms measured at relatively short instrumented towers were obtained at Mount San Salvatore, Switzerland (101 negative CG flashes-Berger, 1967, 1975), at Foligno and Monte Orsa, Italy (4...
The towers in Switzerland and Italy are no longer operational. The Brazilian tower operated from 1985 to 1998 (13 years), returning to operation in 2007 when it was upgraded with new instrumentation (additional information is found in Section 3.2). Al...
Table 9.1 shows the median peak current calculated from the data cited above. Some interesting aspects related to these observations are listed below:
*The value in Brazil does not change if the observations after the 2007 upgrade are included. (Visacro et al., 2010).
a. In Brazil, the summer mean peak current value is the same as that for other seasons, while in Switzerland the summer mean peak current value (37 kA) is 20% higher than in other seasons. This suggests possible seasonal dependence.
b. In Brazil, no values below 20 kA were observed in the period from 1985 to 1998. This fact partially explains the larger value for Brazil (50% larger than the Swiss value reported by K. Berger) shown in Table 9.1. Note, however, that values below 20...
c. The Japanese measurements are restricted to peak currents above 9 kA.
d. In all observations possible contamination by upward flashes cannot be ruled out, although it is unlikely judging from the measured current waveforms.
Clearly, additional direct current measurements for first strokes are needed.
First-stroke peak current estimated by lightning location systems (LLS). First-stroke peak currents reported by lightning location systems are subject to large uncertainties. Despite these uncertainties, relative annual variations of the peak currents...
Recently, Saraiva (2011) suggested (based on a preliminary analysis of limited data) that the peak current of negative flashes increases by about 10% as the height of the 35 dBZ echo increases from 8 to 15 km. This prediction is in need of confirmatio...
First return stroke front duration. First return stroke front duration T-10 defined as the time between the 10% and 90% values of the first peak in the current wave front can be measured with precision only at instrumented towers. Table 9.2 shows the ...
Table 9.2. Median values of front duration (T-10) for first strokes calculated from measurements at different instrumented towers.
*The value for Brazil changes to 5.1 µs if the observations after 2007 (n = 7) are included (Visacro et al., 2010).
Subsequent return strokes. Table 9.3 shows median values of peak current and front duration (T-10) for subsequent strokes calculated from measurements in Switzerland, Brazil, and Italy. The differences for peak currents are larger than those for front...
Table 9.3. Median values of peak current and front duration (T-10) for subsequent strokes calculated from measurements at different instrumented towers.
The above data appear to suggest that variations in the first and subsequent stroke peak current may exist for different geographical locations. However, one cannot rule out the possibility that a significant part of the observed variation results fro...
Electric field measurements with sufficient time resolution is another technique capable of obtaining accurate values of multiplicity. Observations using this technique have been done in Sri Lanka by Cooray and Jayaratne (1994), in Sweden by Cooray an...
However, Saraiva (2011) recently showed that when the multiplicity data are sorted according to the different storm types present in Arizona and São Paulo during the observation period, an appreciable storm-to-storm lightning parameter variation is ob...
Saraiva et al. (2010) who used an accurate stroke-count technique, reported interstroke intervals for negative flashes in different regions. A high-speed camera was used to measure 1210 interstroke intervals in Arizona and São Paulo. The values range...
Fig. 9.3. Distributions of interstroke intervals in Arizona and São Paulo. Adapted from Saraiva et al. (2010).
Fig. 9.4. Percentage of flashes that produce a given number of ground contacts in Arizona and São Paulo. Adapted from Saraiva et al. (2010).
Fig. 9.5. Charge versus duration for negative CC. Adapted from Ferraz et al. (2009).
Fig. 9.6. Distributions of very-short and short CC durations in Arizona and Sao Paulo. The distributions are very similar. The only differences appear between 12 and 40 ms, in the range of short CC. Adapted from Saraiva et al. (2010).
Fig. 9.7. Distributions of long continuing current durations in Arizona and São Paulo. There are no significant differences between the two distributions. Adapted from Saraiva et al. (2010).
In summary, available data obtained using the same technique in different regions do not support any dependence of the CC duration on geographical location.
9.5 Summary
10. Lightning parameters needed for different engineering applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 General Considerations
10.3 Transmission Lines
10.4 Distribution Lines
10.5 Surge Arresters and Other Surge Protection Devices
10.6 Other Ground-Based Installations
10.7 Lightning Parameters Needed for the Protection of Ordinary Structures
10.8 Summary
Conclusions
References
[1] Akopian A. A., V. P. Larionov, and A. S. Torosian. 1954. On impulse discharge voltages across high voltage insulation as related to the shape of the voltage wave. CIGRE Paper 411: 1-15.
[2] Alstad K., J. Huse, H. M. Paulsen, A. Schei, H. Wold, T. Henriksen, and A. Rein. 1979. Lightning impulse flashover criterion for overhead line insulation. Proc. of ISH, Milan, Italy, paper 42.19.
[3] Ametani A., Y. Kasai, J. Sawada, A. Mochizuki, and T. Yamada. 1994. Frequency-dependent impedance of vertical conductors and a multiconductor tower model. IEE Proc. Generat. Transm. Distrib. 141: 339-45.
[4] Ametani A. and T. Kawamura. 2005. A method of a lightning surge analysis recommended in Japan using EMTP. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 20: 867-75.
[5] Anderson, J. G. 1981. Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines. In Transmission Line Reference Book, Palo Alto, CA, USA: Electric Power Research Institute.
[6] Anderson, J. G. 1982. Lightning performance of transmission lines, in Transmission Line Reference Book – 345 kV and Above, 2nd ed., pp. 545-597, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, Calif.
[7] Anderson, R. B. and A. J. Eriksson. 1980. Lightning parameters for engineering application. Electra 69: 65-102.
[8] Anderson, R. B., A. J. Eriksson, H. Kroninger, D. V. Meal, and M. A Smith. 1984a. Lightning and thunderstorm parameters. In Lightning and Power Systems, London: IEE Conf. Publ. No. 236, 5 p.
[9] Andreotti, A., S. Falco, and L. Verolino. 2005. Some integrals involving Heidler’s lightning return stroke current expression. Electr. Eng. 87: 121-8, doi: 10.1007/s00202-004-0240-8.
[10] Asakawa, A., K. Miyake, S. Yokoyama, T. Shindo, T. Yokota, and T Sakai. 1997. Two types of lightning discharges to a high stack on the coast of the Sea of Japan in Winter. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 12: 1222-31.
[14] Baharudin, Z.A., N. A. Ahmad, J. S. Makela, M. Fernando, and V. Cooray. 2012. Negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes in Malaysia. J. Atmos. Solar-Terrestr. Phys., submitted.
[15] Baldo, G., A. Pigini, and K. H. Weck. 1981. Nonstandard lightning impulse strength. In document CIGRÉ 33-81, Private communication.
[16] Ballarotti, M. G., C. Medeiros, M. M. F. Saba, W. Schulz, and O. Pinto Jr. 2012. Frequency distributions of some parameters of negative downward lightning flashes based on accurate-stroke-count studies. J. Geophys. Res. 117: D06112, doi:10.1029/2...
[17] Ballarotti, M. G., M. M. F. Saba, and O. Pinto Jr. 2005. High-speed camera observations of negative ground flashes on a millisecond-scale. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32: L23802, doi:10.1029/2005GL023889.
[20] Bazelyan, E. M., B. N. Gorin, and V. I Levitov. 1978. Physical and Engineering Foundations of Lightning Protection, 223 p., Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat.
[21] Beasley, W. 1985. Positive cloud-to-ground lightning observations. J. Geophys. Res. 90: 6131-8.
[22] Beasley, W. H., M. A. Uman, D. M. Jordan, and C. Ganesh. 1983. Positive cloud to ground lightning return strokes. J. Geophys. Res. 88: 8475-82.
[23] Beierl, O. 1992. Front shape parameters of negative subsequent strokes measured at the Peissenberg tower. In Proc. 21st Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Berlin, Germany, pp. 19-24.
[24] Berger, K. 1967. Novel observations on lightning discharges: Results of research on Mount San Salvatore. J. Franklin Inst. 283: 478-525.
[26] Berger, K. 1977. The Earth Flash. In Lightning, Vol. 1, Physics of Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, pp. 119-90. New York: Academic Press.
[27] Berger, K. 1978. Blitzstrom-Parameter von Aufwärtsblitzen. Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Bd. 69: 353-60.
[28] Berger, K., R. B. Anderson, and H. Kroninger. 1975. Parameters of lightning flashes. Electra 80: 23-37.
[30] Berger, G., A. Hermant, and A. S. Labbe. 1996. Observations of natural lightning in France. In Proc. of the 23rd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Florence, Italy, vol. 1, pp. 67-72.
[31] Berger, K. and E. Vogelsanger. 1965. Messungen und Resultate der Blitzforschung der Jahre 1955-1963 auf dem Monte San Salvatore. Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Bd. 56: 2-22.
[32] Berger, K., and E. Vogelsanger. 1966. Photographische Blitzuntersuchungen der Jahre 1955-1965 auf dem Monte San Salvatore. Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Bd. 57: 599-620.
[33] Berger, K., and E. Vogelsanger. 1969. New results of lightning observations. In Planetary Electrodynamics, eds. S.C. Coroniti and J. Hughes, pp. 489-510, New York: Gordon and Breach.
[34] Bermudez, J. L., M. Rubinstein, F. Rachidi, F. Heidler, and M. Paolone. 2003. Determination of reflection coefficients at the top and bottom of elevated strike objects struck by lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 108: 4413, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002973.
[35] Biagi, C. J., K. L. Cummins, K. E. Kehoe, and E. P. Krider. 2007. National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) performance in southern Arizona, Texas, and Oklahoma in 2003–2004. J. Geophys. Res. 112: D05208, doi: 10.1029/2006JD007341.
[43] Brook, M., M. Nakano, P. Krehbiel, and T. Takeuti. 1982. The electrical structure of the Hokuriku winter thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 87: 1207-15, doi:10.1029/JC087iC02p01207.
[44] Bruce, C. E. R. and R. H. Golde. 1941. The lightning discharge. J. Inst. Elec. Eng. 88: 487-520.
[45] Caldwell, R. and M. Darveniza. 1973. Experimental and Analytical Studies of the Effect of Non-Standard Waveshapes on the Impulse Strength of External Insulation. IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst. PAS-92: 1420-8.
[46] Campos, L. Z. S., M. M. F. Saba, O. Pinto Jr., and M. G. Ballarotti. 2007. Waveshapes of continuing currents and properties of M-components in natural negative cloud-to-ground lightning from high-speed video observations. Atmos. Res. 84: 302-10, ...
[47] Campos, L. Z. S., M. M. F. Saba, O. Pinto Jr., and M. G. Ballarotti. 2009. Waveshapes of continuing currents and properties of M-components in natural positive cloud-to-ground lightning. Atmos. Res. 91: 416-24, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.02.020.
[49] Chisholm, W. A., J. P. Levine, and P. Chowdhuri. 2001. Lightning arc damage to optical fiber ground wires (OPGW): parameters and test methods. In 2001 Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting. Conference Proceedings, 1, 88-93, Vancouver, BC, Cana...
[62] Cooray, V. and K. P. S. C. Jayaratne. 1994. Characteristics of lightning flashes observed in Sri Lanka in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res. 99: 21,051-6, doi:10.1029/94JD01519.
[63] Cooray, V. and on behalf of CIGRE Working Group C4.405. 2011. Lightning interception - A review of simulation procedures utilized to study the attachment of lightning flashes to grounded structures. Electra 257: 48–55.
[64] Cooray, V., and H. Pérez. 1994. Some features of lightning flashes observed in Sweden. J. Geophys. Res. 99: 10,683-10,688, doi:10.1029/93JD02366.
[75] Depasse, P. 1994. Statistics on artificially triggered lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 99: 18,515-22, doi:10.1029/94JD00912.
[76] Diendorfer, G. 2008. Some comments on the achievable accuracy of local ground flash density values. In Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Uppsala, Sweden, Paper 2-8, 6 p.
[84] Diendorfer, G., M. Viehberger, M. Mair, W. Schulz. 2003. An attempt to determine currents in lightning channels branches from optical data of a high speed video system. In International Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, Blackpool, U...
[85] Diendorfer, G., H. Zhou and H. Pichler. 2011. Review of 10 years of lightning measurement at the Gaisberg Tower in Austria. In Proc. 3rd Int. Symposium on Winter Lightning (ISWL), Sapporo, Japan.
[86] Dulzon, A. A. and V. A. Rakov. 1991. A study of power line lightning performance. In Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on High Voltage Engineering, Dresden, Germany, pp. 57-60.
[87] Dwyer, J. R. 2005. A bolt out of the blue. Sci. Am. 292: 64-71.
[88] Eriksson, A. J. 1978. Lightning and tall structures. Trans. South African IEE 69: 2-16.
[89] Eriksson, A. J. 1982. The CSIR lightning research mast-data for 1972-1982. NEERI Internal Report No. EK/9/82, National Electrical Engineering Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.
[90] Eriksson, A. J. 1987. The incidence of lightning strikes to power lines. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 2: 859-870.
[94] Ferro, M. A., M. M. F. Saba, and O. Pinto Jr. 2009. Continuing current in multiple channel cloud-to-ground lightning. Atmos. Res. 91: 399–403, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.04.011.
[96] Fisher, F. A., J. A. Plumer. 1977. Lightning protection of aircraft. NASA Ref. Publ., NASA-RP-1008.
[97] Fisher, R. J., G. H. Schnetzer, R. Thottappillil, V. A. Rakov, M. A. Uman, and J. D. Goldberg. 1993. Parameters of triggered-lightning flashes in Florida and Alabama. J. Geophys. Res. 98: 22,887-902, doi:10.1029/93JD02293.
[98] Flache, D., V. A. Rakov, F. Heidler, W. Zischank, and R. Thottappillil. 2008. Initial-stage pulses in upward lightning: Leader/return stroke versus Mcomponent mode of charge transfer to ground. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35: L13812, doi:10.1029/2008GL03...
[99] Fleenor, S. A., C. J. Biagi, K. L. Cummins, E. P. Krider, and X. M. Shao. 2009. Characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning in warm-season thunderstorms in the Central Great Plains. Atmos. Res. 91: 333-52, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.08.011.
[101] Fuquay, D. M. 1982. Positive cloud-to-ground lightning in summer thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 87: 7131-40, doi:10.1029/JC087iC09p07131.
[128] Hermant, A. 2000.Traqueur d’Orages, Nathan/HER, Paris, France.
[141] IEEE Standard 1410-2010. 2010. IEEE Guide for Improving the Lightning Performance of Electric Power Overhead Distribution Lines.
[142] IEEE Working Group on Estimating the Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines. 1985. A Simplified Method for Estimating Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines. IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst. PAS-104: 918–32.
[143] IEEE Working Group on Estimating the Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines. 1993. Estimating lightning performance of transmission lines. II. Updates to analytical models. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 8:1254–67.
[144] Ishii, M., F. Fujii, M. Matsui, K. Shinjo, M. Saito, J. -I. Hojo, and N. Itamoto. 2005. LEMP from lightning discharges observed by JLDN. IEEJ Trans. PE 125: 765-70.
[154] Kind, D. 1958. Die Aufbauflache bei Stossspannungsbeanspruchung technischer Elektrodenanordnungen in Luft. ETZ-A 79: 65–9.
[155] Kitagawa, N., M. Brook, and E. J. Workman. 1962. Continuing current in cloud-to-ground lightning discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 67: 637–47.
[158] Kong, X. Z., X. S. Qie, Y. Zhao, and T. Zhang. 2009. Characteristics of negative lightning flashes presenting multiple-ground terminations on a millisecond-scale. Atmos. Res. 91: 381-6.
[159] Krider, E. P., C. J. Biagi, K. L. Cummins, S. Fleenor, and K.E. Kehoe. 2007. Measurements of Lightning Parameters Using Video and NLDN Data. 13th Intl. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, Beijing, China.
[160] Krider, E. P. and G. J. Radda. 1975. Radiation field wave forms produced by lightning stepped leaders. J. Geophys. Res. 80: 2,635–57, doi:10.1029/JC080i018p02653.
[163] Livingston, J. M. and E. P. Krider. 1978. Electric fields produced by Florida thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 83: 385-401.
[164] Lopez, R. E., R. L. Holle, R. Ortiz, and A. I. Watson. 1992. Detection efficiency losses of networks of direction finders due to flash signal attenuation with range. In Proc. 15th Int. Aerospace and Ground Conf. on Lightning and Static Electrici...
[166] MacGorman, D. R., M. W. Maier, and W. D Rust. 1984. Lightning strike density for the contiguous United States from thunderstorm duration records, NUREG/CR-3759, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washingto...
[176] Matsumoto Y., 0. Sakuma, K. Shinjo, M. Saiki, T. Wakai, T. Sakai, H. Nagasaka, H. Motoyama, and M. Ishii. 1996. Measurement of Lightning Surges on Test Transmission Line Equipped with Arresters Struck by Natural and Triggered Lightning. IEEE Tra...
[177] Meliopoulos, A. P. S., W. Adams, and R. Casey. 1997. An integrated backflashover model for insulation coordination of overhead transmission lines. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 19: 229–34.
[178] McCann, D.G. 1944. The measurement of lightning currents in direct strokes. Trans. AIEE 63: 1157-64.
[181] Medeiros, C. and M. M. F. Saba. 2012. Presence of continuing currents in negative cloud-to-ground flashes. International Conf. on Lightning Detection, Denver, Colorado.
[189] Mikropoulos, P. N. and T. E. Tsovilis. 2010. Lightning attachment models and maximum shielding failure current of overhead transmission lines: implications in insulation coordination of substations. IET Gener. Transm. Dis. 4: 1299-1313.
[190] Military Standard. 1983. Lightning qualification test techniques for aerospace vehicles and hardware. MIL-STD-1757A.
[214] Oliveira Filho, A., W. Schulz, M. M. F. Saba, O. Pinto Jr. and M. G. Ballarotti. 2007. The relationship between first and subsequent stroke electric field peak in negative cloud-to-ground lightning. 13th Intl. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, B...
[233] Qie, X., Y. Yu, D. Wang, H. Wang, and R. Chu. 2002. Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning in Chinese Inland Plateau. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 80: 745-54.
[244] Rakov, V. A. 2009. Triggered Lightning, in “Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications”, eds. H.D. Betz, U. Schumann, and P. Laroche, Springer, 691 p., ISBN 978-1-4020-9078-3, pp. 23-56.
[246] Rakov, V.A., D.E. Crawford, K.J. Rambo, G.H. Schnetzer, M.A. Uman, and R. Thottappillil. 2001. M-Component Mode of Charge Transfer to Ground in Lightning Discharges. J. Geophys. Res. 106: 22,817-31.
[253] Rakov, V.A. and M. A. Uman. 1990b. Some properties of negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes versus stroke order. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 5447-53.
[254] Rakov, V.A., and M. A. Uman. 1994. Origin of lightning electric field signatures showing two return-stroke waveforms separated in time by a millisecond or less. J. Geophys. Res. 99: 8157-65.
[256] Rakov, V.A. and M. A. Uman. 2003. Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, 687 p., HB ISBN 0521583276, PB ISBN 0521035414.
[257] Rakov, V. A., M. A. Uman, D. M. Jordan and C. A. Priore III. 1990. Ratio of leader to return-stroke electric field change for first and subsequent lightning strokes. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 16,579-87.
[268] Ross M., S. A. Cummer, T. K. Nielsen, and Y. Zhang. 2008. Simultaneous remote electric and magnetic field measurements of lightning continuing currents. J. Geophys. Res. 113: D20125, doi:10.1029/2008JD010294.
[272] Rust, W. D., D. R. MacGorman, and R. T. Arnold. 1981. Positive cloud to ground lightning flashes in severe storms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 8: 791-794.
[274] Saba, M. M. F., M. G. Ballarotti, and O. Pinto Jr. 2006a. Negative cloud-to-ground lightning properties from high-speed video observations. J. Geophys. Res. 111: D03101, doi:10.1029/2005JD006415.
[275] Saba, M. M. F., O. Pinto Jr., and M. G. Ballarotti. 2006b. Relation between lightning return stroke peak current and following continuing current. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33: L23807, doi:10.1029/2006GL027455.
[277] Saba, M. M. F., C. Schumann, T. A. Warner, J. H. Helsdon, W. Schulz, and R. E. Orville. 2013. Bipolar cloud-to-ground lightning flash observations. J. Geophys. Res. 115: D24201, submitted.
[280] Saraiva, A. C. V., M. M. F. Saba, O. Pinto Jr., K. L. Cummins, E. P. Krider, and L. Z. S. Campos. 2010. A comparative study of negative cloud-to-ground lightning characteristics in São Paulo (Brazil) and Arizona (United States) based on high-spe...
[291] Schulz, W. and G. Diendorfer. 2006. Flash multiplicity and interstroke intervals in Austria. In Proc. of 28th Intl. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Kanazawa, Japan, paper II-4, pp. 402-404.
[292] Schulz, W., S. Sindelar, A. Kafri, T. Gotschl, N. Theethayi, and R. Thottappillil. 2008. The ratio between first and subsequent lightning return stroke electric field peaks in Sweden. Paper presented at 29th International Conference on Lightning...
[293] Schumann, C. and M. M. F. Saba. 2012. Continuing current intensity in positive ground flashes, International Conf. on Lightning Protection, Vienna, Austria.
[294] Schumann, C., M. M. F. Saba, R. B. G. da Silva, and W. Schulz. 2013. Electric fields changes produced by positives cloud-to-ground lightning flashes. J. Atoms. Terr. Physics 92: 37–42, doi: 10.1016/j.jastp.2012.09.008.
[297] Shindo, T., and M. A. Uman. 1989. Continuing current in negative cloud-to-ground lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 94: 5189-98.
[308] Stall, C.A., K.L. Cummins, E.P. Krider, and J.A. Cramer. 2009. Detecting Multiple Ground Contacts in Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Flashes. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech. 26: 2392-402.
[309] Stekolnikov, I.S. 1941. The parameters of the lightning discharge and the calculation of the current waveform. Elektrichestvo 3: 63-8.
[313] Thottappillil, R., J. D. Goldberg, V. A. Rakov, and M. A. Uman. 1995. Properties of M components from currents measured at triggered lightning channel base. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 25, 711-20.
[317] Uman, M. A. 1987. The Lightning Discharge, 377 p., San Diego: Academic Press.
[318] Uman, M. A. 2001. The Lightning Discharge, 377 p., Mineola, New York: Dover.
[320] Uman, M. A., V. A. Rakov, K. J. Rambo, T. W. Vaught, M. I. Fernandez, D. J. Cordier, R. M. Chandler, R. Bernstein, and C. Golden. 1997. Triggered-lightning experiments at Camp Blanding, Florida (1993-1995). Trans. of IEE Japan, Special Issue on ...
[322] Valine, W.C. and E.P. Krider. 2002. Statistics and characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning with multiple ground contacts. J. Geophys. Res. 107: AAC 8-1-11.
Table 3.3. Comparison of return-stroke peak currents (the largest peak, in kA) for first strokes in negative downward lightning
Table 3.4. Comparison of return-stroke peak currents (in kA) for subsequent strokes in negative lightning
Table 5.1. Summary of measured return stroke speeds in natural and triggered negative lightning. Adapted from Rakov et al. (1992).
