Lightning Electromagnetics, Volume 2: Return Electrical processes and effects

Cover
Contents
About the editors
Acknowledgements
1 Basic discharge processes in the atmosphere
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Electron avalanche
1.3 Streamer discharges
1.4 Corona discharges
1.5 Thermalization or heating of air by a discharge
1.6 Low-pressure electrical discharges
1.7 Leader discharges
1.8 Some features of mathematical modelling of positive leader discharges
1.9 Leader inception based on thermalization of the discharge channel
References
2 Modelling of charging processes in clouds
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definitions of some model descriptors
2.2.1 Basic terminology
2.2.2 Terms related to microphysics
2.2.3 Categories of electrification mechanisms
2.2.4 Other categorizations of cloud models
2.3 Brief history of electrification modelling
2.4 Parameterization of electrical processes
2.4.1 Calculating the electric field
2.4.2 Charge continuity
2.4.3 The non-inductive graupel–ice collision mechanism
2.4.4 The inductive charging mechanism
2.4.5 Small ion processes
2.5 Lightning parameterizations
2.5.1 Stochastic lightning model
2.5.2 Pseudo-fractal lightning
2.6 Some applications of models
2.6.1 Ion and inductive mechanisms
2.6.2 Non-inductive graupel–ice sensitivity
2.6.3 Charge structure and lightning type
2.6.4 Concluding remarks
References
3 Numerical simulations of non-thermal electrical discharges in air
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Outline of electro-physical processes in gaseous medium under electric fields
3.2.1 Generation of charged species in gas
3.2.2 Losses of charged species in gas
3.2.3 Dynamics of densities of charge carriers in discharge plasma
3.2.4 Concepts of electron avalanche and streamer
3.3 Hydrodynamic description of gas discharge plasma
3.4 Solving gas discharge problems
3.4.1 Simulations of corona in air
3.4.2 Computer implementation of corona model
3.4.3 Study case: positive corona between coaxial cylinders
3.4.4 Study case: positive corona in rod-plane electrode system
3.5 Simulations of streamer discharges in air
3.5.1 Study case: positive streamer in a weak homogeneous background field
3.5.2 Study case: negative streamer in weak homogeneous background fields
References
4 Attachment of lightning flashes to grounded structures
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Striking distance
4.3 Leader inception models
4.3.1 Critical radius and critical streamer length concepts
4.3.2 Rizk’s generalized leader inception equation
4.3.3 Lalande’s stabilization field equation
4.3.4 Leader inception model of Becerra and Cooray (SLIM)
4.4 Leader progression and attachment models
4.5 The potential of the stepped leader channel and the striking distance
4.5.1 Armstrong and Whitehead
4.5.2 Leader potential extracted from the charge neutralized by the return stroke
4.5.3 Striking distance based on the leader tip potential
4.6 Comparison of EGM against SLIM
4.7 Points where more investigations are needed
4.7.1 Orientation of the stepped leader
4.7.2 The orientation of the connecting leader
4.7.3 The connection between the leader potential and the return stroke current
4.7.4 Inclination of the leader channel
4.7.5 Main assumptions of SLIM
4.8 Concluding remarks
References
5 Modeling lightning strikes to tall towers
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Modeling lightning strikes to tall structures
5.2.1 Engineering models
5.2.2 Electromagnetic models
5.2.3 Hybrid electromagnetic model (HEM)
5.3 Electromagnetic field computation
5.3.1 Electromagnetic field expressions for a perfectly conducting ground
5.3.2 Electromagnetic field computation for a finitely conducting ground
5.4 Review of lightning current data and associated electromagnetic fields
5.4.1 Experimental data
5.4.2 Data from short towers
5.4.3 Summary of Berger’s data
5.4.4 Other data obtained using short towers (≤100 m)
5.4.5 Data from tall towers
5.5 Summary
References
6 Lightning electromagnetic field calculations in the presence of a conducting ground: the numerical treatment of Sommerfeld’s integrals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lightning electromagnetic field calculation in presence of a lossy ground with constant electrical parameters
6.2.1 Over-ground electromagnetic field
6.2.2 Underground electromagnetic field
6.3 Lightning electromagnetic field calculation in presence of a lossy ground with frequency-dependent electrical parameters
6.3.1 The dependence of soil conductivity and permittivity on the frequency
6.3.2 Numerical simulation of over-ground and underground lightning electromagnetic field
6.4 Lightning electromagnetic field calculation in presence of a lossy and horizontally stratified ground
6.4.1 Statement of the problem and derivation of the Green’s functions for the electromagnetic field
6.4.2 Derivation of the lightning electromagnetic field
6.4.3 The reflection coefficient R
6.5 Conclusions
References
7 Lightning electromagnetic field propagation: a survey on the available approximate expressions
7.1 Lightning electromagnetic fields over a homogeneous soil
7.1.1 Horizontal electric field – Cooray–Rubinstein (CR) formula
7.1.2 Vertical electric field and azimuthal magnetic field
7.1.3 Lightning electromagnetic fields under the groundCooray formula
7.2 Electromagnetic fields propagation along a horizontally stratified ground
7.2.1 Lightning electromagnetic fields for a two-layer horizontally stratified ground: a simplified formulation
7.2.2 Validation of the simplified formula
7.3 Electromagnetic fields propagation along a vertically stratified ground
7.3.1 Lightning electromagnetic fields for a two-layer vertically stratified ground: a simplified formulation
7.3.2 Validation of the simplified formula
7.4 Summary
References
8 Interaction of lightning-generated electromagnetic fields with overhead and underground cables
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Transmission line theory
8.3 Electromagnetic field interaction with overhead lines
8.3.1 Single-wire line above a perfectly conducting ground
8.3.2 Taylor, Satterwhite, and Harrison model
8.3.3 Agrawal, Price, and Gurbaxani model
8.3.4 Rachidi model
8.3.5 Rusck model and its extensions
8.3.6 Inclusion of losses
8.3.7 Multiconductor lines
8.3.8 Coupling to complex networks
8.3.9 Frequency-domain solutions
8.3.10 Time-domain solutions
8.3.11 Analytical solutions
8.3.12 Application to lightning-induced voltages
8.4 Electromagnetic field interaction with buried cables
8.4.1 Field-to-buried cables coupling equations
8.4.2 Frequency-domain solutions
8.4.3 Time-domain solutions
8.4.4 Lightning-induced disturbances in a buried cable
8.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9 Application of scale models to the study of lightning transients in power transmission and distribution systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Basis of scale modeling
9.3 Simulation of the electromagnetic environment
9.3.1 Lightning channel
9.3.2 Ground
9.3.3 Overhead lines
9.3.4 Transformers
9.3.5 Surge arresters
9.3.6 Buildings
9.3.7 Transmission line towers
9.4 Evaluation of lightning surges in power lines
9.4.1 Investigations associated with direct strokes
9.4.2 Investigations associated with indirect strokes
9.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
10 Lightning interaction with the ionosphere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The full-wave FDTD model of lightning EMPs interaction with the D-region ionosphere
10.2.1 The parameterization of the lower D-region ionosphere
10.2.2 3D spherical model
10.2.3 2D symmetric polar model
10.3 VLF/LF signal of lightning EM fields propagation through the EIWG
10.3.1 The effect of Earth’s curvature
10.3.2 The effect of the ground conductivity
10.3.3 The effect of different D-region ionospheric profiles
10.4 Application to the propagation of NBEs at different distances in the EIWG
10.5 Application to lightning EM field propagation over a mountainous terrain
10.6 Application to the optical emissions of lightninginduced transient luminous events in the nonlinear D-region ionosphere
10.7 Summary
References
11 Lightning effects in the mesosphere
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sprites
11.2.1 Basic properties and morphology of sprites
11.2.2 Mechanism of the sprite nucleation
11.2.3 Sprite development
11.2.4 Sprite models
11.2.5 Inner structure and color of sprites
11.2.6 ELF/VLF electromagnetic fields produced by sprites
11.2.7 Effects of sprites on the ionosphere
11.3 Blue jet, blue starter, and gigantic jet
11.3.1 Basic properties and morphology of blue and gigantic jets
11.3.2 Development of gigantic jet
11.3.3 Models of gigantic jet
11.4 Elves
11.5 Other transient atmospheric phenomena possibly related to lightning activity
11.5.1 Gnomes and Pixies
11.5.2 Transient atmospheric events
11.5.3 Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
References
12 The effects of lightning on the ionosphere/magnetosphere: whistlers and ionospheric Alfven resonator
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Lightning-induced whistlers in the ionosphere/ magnetosphere
12.2.1 General description of whistlers
12.2.2 Theoretical background of plasma waves
12.2.3 Use of whistlers as a diagnostic tool of the ionosphere/magnetosphere
12.3 Ionospheric Alfve´n resonator (IAR)
12.3.1 Brief history and general introduction of IAR
12.3.2 Ground-based observations of IARs at middle latitude
12.3.3 Generation mechanisms of IAR
12.3.4 Excitation of IAR by nearby thunderstorms
12.4 Summary of lightning effects on the ionosphere/ magnetosphere
References
13 On the NOx generation in corona, streamer and low-pressure electrical discharges
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Testing the theory using corona discharges
13.3 NOx generation in electron avalanches and its relationship to energy dissipation
13.4 NOx production in streamer discharges
13.5 Discussion and conclusions
References
14 On the NOx production by laboratory electrical discharges and lightning
14.1 Introduction
14.2 NOx production by laboratory sparks
14.2.1 Radius of spark channels
14.2.2 The volume of air heated in a spark channel and its internal energy
14.2.3 NOx production in spark channels
14.2.4 Efficiency of NOx production in sparks with different current wave-shapes
14.2.5 NOx production in sparks as a function of energy
14.3 NOx production in discharges containing long-duration currents
14.4 NOx production in streamer discharges
14.5 NOx production in ground lightning flashes
14.5.1 The model of a ground lightning flash
14.5.2 NOx production in different processes in ground flashes
14.6 NOx production by cloud flashes
14.7 Global production of NOx by lightning flashes
14.8 Conclusions
Appendix 1
References
15 Lightning and climate change
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basics of thunderstorm electrification and lightning
15.3 Thermodynamic control on lightning activity
15.3.1 Temperature
15.3.2 Dew point temperature
15.3.3 Water vapor and the Clausius–Clapeyron relationship
15.3.4 Convective available potential energy and its temperature dependence
15.3.5 Cloud base height and its influence on cloud microphysics
15.3.6 Balance level considerations in deep convection
15.3.7 Baroclinicity
15.4 Global lightning response to temperature on different time scales
15.4.1 Diurnal variation
15.4.2 Semiannual variation
15.4.3 Annual variation
15.4.4 ENSO
15.4.5 Decadal time scale
15.4.6 Multi-decadal time scale
15.4.7 Hiatus in global warming and “warming hole”
15.5 Aerosol influence on moist convection and lightning activity
15.5.1 Basic concepts
15.5.2 Observational support
15.5.3 Lightning response to the COVID-19 pandemic
15.5.4 Work of Wang et al. (2018) on the global aerosollightning relationship
15.6 Lightning as a climate variable
15.7 Lightning activity at high latitude
15.7.1 The Arctic
15.7.2 Alaska
15.8 Winter-type thunderstorms and lightning
15.8.1 Effects of global warming on winter thunderstorms
15.9 Storms at the mesoscale
15.10 Tropical cyclones
15.11 Cloud-to-ocean lightning
15.12 Lightning superbolts and megaflashes
15.13 Nocturnal thunderstorms
15.14 Meteorological control on lightning type
15.15 The global circuits as monitors for destructive lightning and climate change
15.16 Expectations for the future
References
Index
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