Life on Land

Life on Land
Series Preface
Volume Preface
List of Topics
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
A
Abiotic Influences on the Early Evolution of Life
Definitions
Introduction
Rationale
The Early Evolutionary Record (until 800 ma)
Large Scale Abiotic Influences
Plate Tectonics
Igneous Activity (Volcanism and Magmatism) and Crustal Composition
Super Continental Cycles and Paleogeographic Position
Small Scale Abiotic Influences
Oxygen
Nutrients
Temperature
The Water Column System
Perspectives
References
Afforestation
Afforestation and Its Climate Change Impact
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Site Conditions
Species Selection
Sowing
Planting
Planting Material
Planting Methods
Planting Time
Afforestation Density
Aftercare Activities
Afforestation and Biodiversity
Afforestation and Climate Changes
Key Issues
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Afrotropics: African Tropical Region
Agrarian Values
Agrarianism: The Way to Sustainability and Resilience
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Agrarianism in the Present
Agrarian Values from the Classical Epoch to the Nineteenth Century
Twentieth-Century and Contemporary Agrarianism
New Inspirations for Agrarianism
Sustainable Agriculture
Resilience Agriculture
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Agricultural Ethics
Agricultural Intensification
Agricultural Practices and Sustainable Management in South Asia
Definitions
Introduction
Soil Management
Water Management
Nutrient Management
Crop Pests and Disease Management
Weed Management
Crop Diversification for Optimizing the Soil and Water Management
Future Prospects
References
Agroecological Resilience
Agro-ecology
Amenities
Anthropocentrism: Problem of Human-Centered Ethics in Sustainable Development Goals
Definitions
Introduction
Economic Growth and Ecological Limits
Inclusion and Exclusion
Resilience and Extinction
Ways Forward
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Arboretum
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: Beneficial Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture
Definitions
Introduction
Ensuring a Sustainable Natural Resource Base
The Use of Bioproducts: Diminishing the Impact
The Plant Microbiome
Mycorrhiza as Part of the Root Microbiome
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Biotic Stress
AM and Plant Protection Against Pathogens
AM Improve Plant Defense to Herbivorous Insects
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Abiotic Stress
Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils
Phytoremediation
The Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in HMs Alleviation
Glomalin: A Protein with an Important Role in Carbon Economy, Soil Decontamination, and Aggregation
Using Biofertilizers in the Field
Understanding and Manipulating the Mycorrhizosphere Microbiome
Closing Remarks
Cross-References
References
Artificially Established Forests
Assessing the Role of Freshwater Legacy in Aquatic Health
Definitions
Introduction
Types of Freshwater Ecosystems
Ecosystem Legacies
Changes in Freshwater Ecosystems
Chemical Factors
Physical Factors
Biological Factors
Future Directions
Freshwater Biodiversity Threats
Challenges of Long-Term Environmental Monitoring Programs
Application of Paleoecotoxicology in Freshwater Legacy Assessment
Cross-References
References
B
Biodiversity
Biodiversity Crisis
Biodiversity Erosion: Causes and Consequences
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Drivers of Biodiversity Erosion
Habitat Changes
Human-Induced Climate Change
Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
Resource Depletion (Overexploitation of Natural Resources)
Pollution and Contamination
Indirect Drivers
Indicators of Biodiversity Erosion
Key Issues on Islands
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Biodiversity Loss
Biodiversity Loss and Countermeasures
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Biodiversity Loss
Ecosystems
Species
Genetic Diversity
Countermeasures
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Biological Diversity: Global Threats
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Threats to Biodiversity
Human Population Growth
Destruction, Fragmentation, and Habitat Loss
Environmental Degradation and Pollution
Global Climate Change
Invasive and Allochthonous Species and Genetically Modified Organisms
Overexploitation
Diseases
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Biological Recultivation
Biological Species Diversity
Biome: Biotic Community
Biotas
Boreal Forests: Distributions, Biodiversity, and Management
Definitions
Introduction
Global Distribution of Boreal Forests
Biodiversity in the Boreal Forest
Plants
Mammals
Reptiles and Amphibians
Insects
Fishes
Birds
Boreal Forest Management
Canada
Alaska, USA
Scandinavia
Finland
Norway
Sweden
Russia
Disturbances in the Boreal Forest
Challenges in Sustainable Management of the Boreal Forest
Conclusions
References
Botanical Gardens Facing Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Botanical Gardens and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Botanical Garden Seed Banks for Conservation, Restoration, and Introduction
The Botanical Garden Herbaria for Reconstructing the Phenology of Plant Species
Botanical Gardens and Education in Conservation and Climate Change
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
C
Chernobyl Accident
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
Children and Nature: Developing Care for the Land
Definitions
Introduction
Environmental Generational Amnesia
The Need for Children to Interact with Wild Nature as well as Domestic Nature
Can the Human Species Adapt its Way Out of the Problem of the Loss of Nature?
Developing Care for the Land
Representative Current Approaches
Nature Preschools
Green Schoolyards
Encouraging Parents to Engage Nature with Their Children
Fostering Children´s Interaction with Domestic Animals
500 Ways to Combat Nature-Deficit Disorder
Deepening Children´s Caring Relationships with the Land Through Rewilding
Deepening Children´s Caring for the Land Through a Cultural Paradigm Shift
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Climate Change
Coastal Mangrove
Community-Based Management and Research to Forest Conservation
Definitions
Introduction
Traditional Forest Conservation Practices
Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Forest Conservation
Local Communities and Protected Areas Governance
Forest Conservation in Community-Led Initiatives
Community-Based Research in Forested Areas
Future Steps to Reach SDG15 Through Community-Based Research
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Community-Based Natural Resources Management
Definition
Introduction
History of CBNRM
Characteristics of CBNRM
Community-Based Organization (CBO)
Examples of CBNRM
CAMPFIRE
Community Forestry or Community-Based Forestry (CBF)
History of Community Forestry
Community Forestry in Nepal
Shortcomings of CBF
Benefits of CBNRM
Success Story: Hariyo Ban Project
Challenges Facing CBNRM
Future of CBNRM
Cross-References
References
Conservation
Conservation of Mammals
Definitions
Introduction
Bottom-Up Thinking in Conservation
Conservation Marketing and Ambassadors: Charismatics Meet Umbrellas
Behavioral Dissonance, Animal Attractions and Inappropriate Pets
Where Conservation Meets Social Justice
Top-Down Thinking in Conservation
Conservation Geopolitics
Geopolitical Perspective: Taxon Scale Priorities and Efficiencies
Geopolitical Perspective: Species Scale
Who Pays?
Social Justice, the Cecil Movement, the Oxford Format, and Conservation-Led Development
Summary
Cross-References
References
Conservation of Plant Species
Synonyms
Definition
Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
Plant Conservation Categories
Plant Conservation Strategies: Priorities, Goals, Methods and Objects
Plant Conservation Strategies: Participation and Ownership
Cross-References
References
Consumption and Biodiversity Conservation: Insights from Behavioral Science Using the MINDSPACE Approach
Definitions
Introduction
MINDSPACE to Change Human Consumption for Biodiversity Conservation
Messenger
Incentives
Norms
Defaults
Salience
Priming
Affect
Commitment
Ego
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Co-occurrence
Crop, Weed, and Pests Management by GMOs
Cultural Ecosystem Services
Definition
Introduction
The Concept of Cultural Ecosystem Services
Cultural ES Services: Structure and Function, Evaluation, and Categories
Landscape Aesthetics
Cultural Landscape (Cultural Heritage and Spiritual Significance)
Recreation and Tourism
Future Direction: Landscape Planning and Management
Cross-References
References
D
Decrease of Biodiversity
Degradation of Biodiversity
Desertification: Causes and Countermeasures
Definition
Introduction
Desertification: Land Degradation
Drylands
Causes and Consequences
Assessment and Monitoring
Countermeasures
Conclusions
References
Destruction of Biodiversity
Diversity Loss
Diversity of Genes
E
Ecocide: Past, Present, and Future Challenges
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Ecocide as a National Crime?
Ecocide Is Considered as a Crime in Ten Countries
British and French Failed Attempts
Ecocide as an International Crime?
Early Attempts to Define the Contours of Ecocide
Protecting the Environment in Times of War
Crimes Against the Environment or Crimes Against Humanity?
The Future of Ecocide
Environmental Crimes and the Rome Statute
The Procedural Challenges Attached to Amending the Rome Statute
Designing a Robust and Legally Sound Definition Proposal
Cross-References
References
Treaties and Conventions
United Nations and Tribunal Documents
Ecological Destruction
Ecological Integrity
Ecological Restoration and Ecosystem Services
Definitions
Introduction
Ecological Restoration of Ecosystems
Importance of Scale in Planning and Implementing Ecological Restoration
Applications at Site Scale
Applications at Territory Scale
Future Directions for SDGs 14 and 15 Targets Related to Ecological Restoration
Cross-References
References
Ecological Unit
Ecologies
Ecology and Conservation of the World´s Primates
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Primate Diversity
Primate Ecology
Major Macroecosystem Use
Major Habitat Use
Biomes, Ecoregions, and Primates
Tropical and Subtropical Forest Ecoregions
Tropical Savanna Ecoregions
Shrublands Ecoregions
Primates Conservation History
Global Primate Conservation Assessment
Extinct Primates
Critically Endangered Primates
Global Threats to Primates
Forests and Primates
Perspectives for Primate Conservation
Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Primates
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 and Primate Conservation
Citizen Science for Conservation
Final Remarks
Cross-References
References
Economic Incentive Schemes
Ecoregions: Mapping Ecosystems to Protect Biodiversity
Definition
The WWF Ecoregions
Applications
Planning
Prioritization
Climate Change
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Ecosystem Function
Definitions
The Use of the Ecosystem Functions Concept in Natural Sciences
From Processes to Functions and Services
Ecosystem Functions, Structure, and Organization
Ecosystem Functions and Management
Ecosystem Functions Versus Landscape Functions
Urban Ecosystem Functions
Ecosystem Functions and Sustainability of Life on Land
Cross-References
References
Ecosystem Integrity
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem Services and Integrity Trend
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Ecosystem Integrity and Ecosystem Services Integrity
Assessment of Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem Services and Ecosystem Integrity Trend
Links with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Conclusion and Future Outlook
Cross-References
References
Ecosystem Services Valuation
Ecosystem Services: Meanings, Politics, Developments, and Way Forward
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Linking Ecology and Ecosystem Services
Spatial and Functional Categorization of ES
Valuation of ES
Policy and Governance: Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)
Distribution and Justice Principles in ES Literature
Debates Around Politics of Ecosystems Services
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Efficiency Frontiers
Engagement with Trees as ``Long-Life Learning´´ for Sustainability
Definitions
Introduction: Trees and Society
Trees in ``Deep Time´´
Phytobiography and Long-Life Learning
``Life Strategies´´ and Survival Strategies
Trees in Cities
Trees in Cities of the Dead
Street Trees
Conclusion
References
Environmental Crimes
Environmental Destruction
Environmental Deterioration and Sustainable Development
Definitions
Introduction
Trends in Environmental Deterioration
Environmental Deterioration on Land and Sea
Governance to Reduce Environmental Deterioration
Toward Implementation of SDG 15 (Life on Land)
Cross-References
References
Environmental Education and Sustainable Development in an Ethical World
Definitions
Introduction
Why Environmental Education?
The Search for Worthwhile Paths
Principles and Methodologies
Final Considerations
Cross-References
References
Environments
Erosion of Biodiversity
ES Bundle
Estuarine Floodplain Forest
Ex Situ Management for Conservation
Definitions
Introduction
The Relevance of Ex Situ Management to Species Conservation
The Evolution of Ex Situ Management: From Menageries to the One Plan Approach
Ex Situ Management Options and Roles
Addressing the Causes of Primary Threats
Offsetting the Impact of Threats
Restoring Wild Populations
Buying Time
Assessing Ex Situ Conservation Options
Incorporating Ex Situ Conservation Assessment into Conservation Planning
Use of Quantitative Tools in Ex Situ Assessment and Management
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extinctions
F
Family Farm
Food Ethics
Food Security
Food Systems
Food-Water-Energy Nexus
Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes: Distribution, Biogeochemical Cycles, and Measurement Techniques
Definitions
Introduction
Distribution of Carbon Across Global Forests
Biogeochemical Cycles Associated with Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
Measuring Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
Drivers of Changes in Global Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
Biotic Drivers of Change
Anthropogenic and Abiotic Drivers of Change
Climate Change Impacts
Forest Carbon Stock and Opportunities for Sustainable Development
Cross-References
References
Forest Dependency: Status, Assessment Tools, and Influencing Factors
Definitions
Introduction
Status of Forests and Dependency Across the Continents
Fuelwood Removals
Employment Generation
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Forest Dependency in Developing Countries
Common Tools and Methodologies for Understanding Forest Dependency
Factors Influencing Forest Dependency
Influence of Forest Dependency on Management
Conclusion
References
Forest Ecosystem Services
Definitions
Forests and Forest Ecosystem Services: Major Characteristics
What Makes Forests Different from Other Ecosystems?
Which Forest Ecosystem Services Provide Key Benefits for Humankind?
Wood Provisioning
Climate Regulation
Water Regulation
Amenity
Mapping Forest Ecosystem Services
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Biodiversity Function
Mixed Forests in Practice
Sustainable Management for Multiple Ecosystem Services
The Management Feedback Loop
Synergies and Trade-Offs Between Forest Ecosystem Services
The Sustainability Condition
Modeling and Decision Support
The Way Forward: Adaptive Forest Landscapes in Support of SDG 15
Cross-References
References
Forest Plantations
Forest Planting
Forest Products from the Wild
Forest Renewal
Forest Resource Administration
Forest Restoration
Forest Transition Approach to Support Global Forest Policy and Sustainable Development
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Background
Forest Transition Theories
Forest Transition Phases
Policy Options for a Global Forest Transition
REDD+ Policies: A Forest Transition Approach
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
Forest Transition Stages
Forest Tree and Liana Life-Forms
Forestation
Freshwater Ecosystems: A Foundation for Life on Land
Definitions
Introduction
Spatiotemporal Movement of Freshwater Ecosystems
Landscape Approaches to Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation
Hydrological Connectivity
Land Cover Change
Water Extraction
Species Invasions in Freshwater Ecosystems
Landscape Approaches to Reduce Freshwater Ecosystem Degradation
Mountain Glaciers: Imperilled Freshwater Ecosystems
Landscape Values are Freshwater Values
Landscape-Scale Freshwater Modeling
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Functional Biodiversity Unit
G
Genetic Differences
Genetic Diversity: Sources, Threats, and Conservation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Importance of Genetic Diversity
Sources of Genetic Diversity
Mutation
Random Genetic Drift
Gene Flow (Migration)
Natural Selection
Genetic Diversity Determination
Threats to Genetic Diversity
Habitat Loss, Deforestation, and Fragmentation
Pathogens, Invasive and Allochthonous Species
Environmental Pollution and Global Climate Change
Conservation of Genetic Diversity
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Genetic Variation
Genetic Variety
Genetically Engineered Crops
Genetically Engineered Crops Impact
Genetically Engineered Plants
Genetically Engineered Plants Impact
Genetically Modified Crops
Genetically Modified Crops Impact
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Regulative on GM Plants
Plant Transformation Methods
Plant In Vitro Culture
Overview of GM Crops Present on the Worldwide Market
Herbicide Tolerant (HT) Plants
Insect-Resistant Plants (Bt Crops)
Virus-Resistant Plants
GM Crops General Impact
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Genetically Modified Plants
Geoconservation for Sustainable Development
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
History of Geoconservation
Geoconservation of Equal Importance to Conservation of Biodiversity
Principles, Practice, and Approach
Geoconservation and Sustainable Communities
Future Challenges and Prospects
Cross-References
References
Geodiversity Conservation
Geographic Information Science: Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Ecosystems Management
Definitions
Introduction
GIS: One Abbreviation, Three Meanings: Geographic Information Science, Systems, and Services
Investigating Spatial Ecological Phenomena Using GIS
GI Science and GI Technology
Spatial Analysis and Visualization
GI Science and Technology to Support Ecosystem Management
Land Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Spatial Data as a Prerequisite for Sustainable Management
Multilayer Analysis
Remote Sensing
Open Data, Volunteered Geographic Information, and Citizen Science
Participatory GIS for Sustainable Decision-Making
Conclusion Remarks
Cross-References
References
Geographies of Differences (and Resistances) in Urbanized and Depopulated Remote Rural Areas
Definitions
Introduction
Mapping Depopulated Differences
Mapping Depopulated Moral Realities
Mapping Traditional Strategies of Resistance: Farmer Populations in Depopulated Spaces
Mapping New Strategies of Resistance: The New Social Groups in Depopulated Rural Environments
Mapping Urban Ruralities
Mapping Nostalgic Rural Individualities in the Urban Environment
Mapping Ruralities Embedded in the City
Mapping Urban Rurality Borders
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Geoheritage Conservation
Geological Conservation
Geomorphological Conservation
Global Change
Global Nitrogen in Sustainable Development: Four Challenges at the Interface of Science and Policy
Definitions
Introduction: Global Nitrogen, Four Challenges
Meeting Global Food Demand While Reducing Nitrogen Pollution
Quantifying the Nitrogen Cascade: Linking Nitrogen Forms, Expert Communities, and Policy Frameworks
Externalities: Assessing Costs, Benefits, and Solutions
Institutional Frameworks: Designing Effective Knowledge Governance Systems
Nitrogen and Sustainable Development: Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Global Threats
Global Warming
GM Plants Benefits
Grassland
Greening
H
Habitat Degradation: Pressures, Threats, and Conservation
Definition
Introduction
The Main Pressures and Threats to Terrestrial Habitats
Agriculture
Deforestation and Monocultures
Urbanization
Recreation and Tourism
Energy Production
Climate Change
Invasive Species
Managing the Threats of Habitat Degradation
Protected Areas
Measures to Mitigate the Main Causes of Habitat Degradation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Habitat Destruction
Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat Loss
Habitat Size Reduction
Halophyte
Human and Social Dimensions of Wildland Fire Management and Forest Protection
Definitions
Introduction
The Frames of Wildfire Management
Wildfire Risk Governance
Wildfire Risk and Social Vulnerability
Wildland-Urban Interface
Wildland Fire Management
The Integration of Human and Social Dimensions on Wildland Fire Management: A Holistic Approach
Community Engagement and Participation on Wildland Fire Management
Community Development
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Human Well-Being
I
Impact Caused by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Risk Analysis of GM Plants Safety
Impacts of Herbicide-Tolerant Plants
Environmental Risks
Advantages of Herbicide-Tolerant Plants
Impact of Insect-Resistant Crops (Bt Crops)
Environmental Risks
Advantages of Bt Plants
Impact of Virus-Resistant Plants
Environmental Risks
Advantages of Virus-Resistant Plants
Potential Impact of GM Crops with Improved Quality/Increased Nutritive Value
Current Regulatory Status of GMOs
Regulative on GMOs
Regulative in the USA
Regulative in the European Union (EU)
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
Codex Alimentarius
Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Impact of Land Degradation on Rural Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa
Definitions
Introduction
Definition of Land Degradation
Land Degradation in the Sustainable Development Goals
Implications of Land Degradation for Rural Livelihoods in SSA
Land Degradation and Rural Food Security
Land Degradation and the Supply of Key Livelihood-Support Resources
Land Degradation and Rural Poverty
Land Degradation and the Provision of Ecosystem Services
Land Degradation and Rural Women
Land Degradation and Health
Institutional and Policy Framework and Initiatives for Addressing Land Degradation in SSA
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Indirect Ecosystem Services
Indomalayan: Asia Tropical Region
Integrated Control
Integrated Control Protection
Integrated Pest Management: Sustainable Approach to Crop Protection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origin of the Concept
Theoretical Aspects
Implementing Integrated Pest Management in Europe
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO, https://www.eppo.int/)
International Organization of Biological Control (IOBC)/West Palearctic Regional Section (WPRS)
Cross-References
References
Integrated Plant Protection
Intermediate Ecosystem Service
Intertidal Forest
Invasive Species Impacts and Management
Definitions
Introduction
Invasive Alien Species: Setting the Scene
Impacts of Invasive Alien Species
(Successful) Control of Invasive Species Is Much More Than Remove Them
Future Directions/Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Invasive Species: Routes of Introduction, Establishment, and Expansion
Definitions
Introduction
Pathways by Which Alien Species Are Transported
Establishment: The Self-Replacing Population Stage
Expansion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Isolation of Habitat Patches
K
Kakamega Tropical Forest: Island in a Human-Dominated Landscape
Definition
Introduction
History of Unsustainable Utilization
Current Efforts Toward Conservation and Successes
Future Plans
References
L
Land
Land Use Planning
Landscape
Definition
Introduction
Landscape Approach
Landscape Concept and Dimension
Landscape Character Assessment
Landscape Protection
Landscape Planning and Management
Future Direction: Planning Sustainable Development at the Landscape Scale
Cross-References
References
Landscape Management
Land-Use Change
Land-Use Intensity and Land-Use Change: Impacts on Biodiversity
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Land Use and Other Drivers of Global Biodiversity Loss
Land-Use Intensity and Land-Use Change: Status, Trends, and Definitions
Land-Use Change and Global Biodiversity
Land-Use Intensity and Global Biodiversity
Agricultural Systems
Forest Management
Land-Use Change and Ecosystem Service Delivery
Strategies and Policies for Biodiversity Conservation Toward SDGs in Relation to Land-Use Change
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Life on Land: Bottom-Up Sustainability Conscientiousness
Definition
Introduction: Sustainability Implementation
Bottom-Up Sustainability Approaches in the Twenty-First Century
Tax Ethics
Public-Private Partnerships
Corporate Social Responsibility
Finance Sector Solutions
Ethical, Environmental, Social, and Governance-Oriented Investments
Cross-References
References
Livestock Welfare
Living Modified Organisms
Loss of Biological Diversity
Loss of Biological Variety
M
Maintenance
Mangal
Mangrove Forests: Ecology, Management, and Threats
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ecology
Factors Controlling Mangrove Distribution
Unique Ecological Features of a Mangrove Forest
Unique Features of a Mangrove Species
Mangrove Biodiversity
Major Threats to Mangrove Forests
Forest Conversion and Deforestation
Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise
Biological Invasion
Mangrove Management
Concluding Remarks
References
Manmade Forests
Markets for Ecosystem Services
MEA
Minor Forest Products
Mountain Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
Definitions
Introduction
The Elevational Gradients
Plant Life
Animal Life
Origin of Mountain Biotas
Mountains as Wildlife Sanctuaries
Threats to Mountain Biodiversity
Sustainable Development
Cross-References
References
Multifunctional Landscapes
N
National Park and Ecosystem Integrity
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Development and Challenges of National Parks
Brief History of Global National Parks
Challenges of National Park Ecosystem Conservation Around the World
History, Basis, and Practical Application of Ecological Integrity in National Park Management
Origin and Development of Ecological Integrity
Social Basis for Monitoring Ecological Integrity
Ecological Integrity Monitoring Programs of Parks Canada Agency: Introduction and Application
The Vital Signs Monitoring Programs of National Park Service: Introduction and Application
Comparison Between the Ecological Integrity Monitoring Program and the Vital Signs Monitoring Program
Contribution of National Parks and Ecosystem Integrity to UN SDGs
References
National-Scale Forest Shift Stages
Natural (Forest) Products
Natural and Sociolegal Dimensions of Soil for Ecosystems Sustainability and Human Health
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Soil Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning
Soil Bioengineering and Ecological Sustainability and Human Health
International Protection of Soil
Direct Legal Protection of the Soil
Indirect Legal Protection of the Soil
Legal Protection of Soil Ecosystem Services
Outlook and Challenges
Cross-References
References
Links
Natural Environment and Human Well-Being
Definitions
Introduction
Human Well-Being and Terrestrial Nature
Well-Being Accounts and Natural Environment
Health and the Natural Environment
Human Well-Being and Social and Environmental Relations
Linking SDG 15 and Human Well-Being
Effects of Land Degradation on Well-Being
Effects of Progress Towards Improving Well-being on SDG 15
Conflicts in Achieving SDG 15 in Environmental Management
Outlook
Cross-References
References
Natural Habitat Loss: Causes and Implications of Structural and Functional Changes
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Background of Natural Habitat Loss
Contemporary Context of Natural Habitat Loss
Linking SDG 15 and Natural Habitat Loss
Causes of Natural Habitat Loss
Types of Natural Habitat Loss
Effects of Natural Habitat Loss
Cross-References
References
Natural Resources Belowground
Neotropics: American Tropical Region
New Forests Establishment
New Paradigms for Modern Biogeography Conservation
Definitions
Introduction
The Planetary Crisis
The Rise of Biodiversity Conservation
Ecological Processes
Metapopulation Dynamics
Migratory Movements
Trophic Relationships
Genetic Variability
Phylogenetic Pool
Functional Patterns
Abiotic Environment
Forward-Looking Conservation Planning
Socioeconomic Players
Hard and Soft Land Ownership
Spatially Explicit Data Challenges
The Way Forward
Final Remarks
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Nonhuman Primates: Monkeys
Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Issues Related to Definition
What Products Belong to ``NTFPs´´?
Economic Importance
NTFPs Policy, Governance, and Support Measures
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Non-wood Forest Products
North American Grasslands as Multifunctional Landscapes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
North American Grasslands Before Euro-American Colonization
Current Status of the North American Grasslands
Agriculture
Energy Production
Challenges for North American Grassland Biodiversity
Climate Change Impacts
Land-Use Impacts to Biodiversity
Agricultural Land Use and Biodiversity
Fossil Fuel Extraction and Biodiversity
Wind Energy and Biodiversity
Managing the North American Grasslands as Multifunctional Landscapes
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
O
Other Forest Products
Outplanting
P
Pareto Frontiers
Participants
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Payments for Ecosystem Services
Direct Payment Schemes
Product-Based PES Schemes
Biodiversity Conservation
Water Quantity and Quality/Hydrological Protection
Carbon Sequestration Functions
Landscape Aesthetics/Ecotourism
Integrating Stakeholder Perspectives
PES Criticisms and Risks
Future Directions
References
People and Community Engagement in Biodiversity Conservation
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Legislations Related to People and Community Engagement
Maastricht Recommendations on Public Participation in Decision-Making (ECE/MP.PP/2014/8)
What Actually Is Engagement or Participation
Different Concepts, Methods, and Approaches in People and Communities´ Engagement
Practical Applications of People and Communities´ Engagement
Cross-References
References
PES
Pest Management
Plant and Animal Resources
Planted Forests: Characterization and Sustainable Management
Synonyms
Definitions
Characterization of Planted Forests at a Global Scale
Importance of Planted Forests at a Global Scale
Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Development
Planted Forests Management Issues
Planted Forests and Species and Genetic Diversity
Planted Forests and Invasive Species
Planted Forests: Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Prairie
Prairie, Steppe
Production Possibility Frontiers
Protection
Provisions
Public Participation
R
Re-afforestation
Realm: Kingdom
Reclamation
Recreation
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)
Definitions
Introduction
Governance in REDD+ Implementation
The UN-REDD, the REDD+ Process, Its Challenges, and Way Forward
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reforestation and Sustainable Development
Synonyms
Definitions
Distinction from Afforestation
The Role of Reforestation in Sustainable Development and Large Reforestation Programs
Reforestation Practice
Passive Reforestation: Natural Reforestation and Natural Regeneration
Active Reforestation
Reforestation by Assisted Natural Regeneration
Reforestation by Direct Seeding
Reforestation by Planting of Seedlings
Site Characteristics
Species Selection
Provenance Selection
Planting Material: Seedling Quality
Preplanting Site Preparation
Planting
Postplanting Culture
Reforestation Challenges and Future Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Regulating Ecosystem Services: Enhancements Through Sustainable Management
Definitions
Introduction
Classifying Regulating Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem Services and Sustainable Development
Challenges of Managing Regulating Ecosystem Services
Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services
Cross-References
References
Rehabilitation
Replanting
Restocking
Restoration
Restoration Ecology: The Emerging Paradigms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Best Practices on Restoration Ecology
Scaling Up Restoration
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Web Links (Accessed 18th April, 2019)
Restoration of Floodplain Forests in European Estuaries
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Setting the Scene on Estuarine Restoration
Benefits of Estuarine Restoration
Estuarine Restoration of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands in Europe
Floodplain Forests in European Estuaries
Characterization of European Floodplain Forests in Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
Loss of Floodplain Forest and Legislation of Estuarine Floodplain Forest Restoration
Implementation of Estuarine Floodplain Forest Restoration
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rethinking Agro-food Sector to Combat Land Degradation and Desertification
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Global Assessment of Land Degradation
The State of Global Land Degradation and Its Costs: Global and Regional Trends and Patterns
Land Degradation Due to LUCC
Loss of Biodiversity
Degradation of Agricultural Land
Cost of Land Degradation
Impact of Land Degradation on Agro-Food Sector
Why Farmers Allow Land to Degrade Even Though they Heavily Depend on it?
Restoration of Degraded Lands
Future Directions to Ensure Simultaneous Restoration of Degraded Lands and Achieving Food and Nutrition Security
Cross-References
References
Revitalization
Ruralism
S
Sacred Forests
Sacred Groves: Potential for Biodiversity and Bioresource Management
Synonyms
Definitions
Sacred Groves: An Overview
Origin and Distribution
People and Culture
Sacred Versus Nonsacred
Ecosystem Function and Services
Biodiversity, Bioresources, and Sustainable Utilization
Plant Diversity and Forest Biomass
Animal Diversity
Changes as Driven by Disturbances
Bioresources and Its Utilization
Sacred Groves: Current Status, Threats, and Conservation Need
Global Scenario
Management and Conservation
Cross-References
References
Sacred Natural Areas
SDG15
Secondary Forest Products
Shareholder
Small Farm
Social Forestry: Principles, Evolution, and Implications for Sustainable Development
Definition
Introduction
The Concept of Social Forestry
Principles of Social Forestry
Advantages and Limitations of Social Forestry
The Emergence and Evolution of Social Forestry
Social Forestry in Asia and the Pacific
Social Forestry in Europe
Social Forestry in South America
Social Forestry in North America
Social Forestry in Africa
Social Forestry in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management and Human and Social Capital Development
Concluding Remarks
References
Social Origins of Threats to Ecosystems
Definition
Introduction
Indicators of Threat to Biodiversity
Extinction
Genetic Diversity
Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat Destruction
Climate Change
Local Example of Climate Change and Biodiversity in Nepal
Overexploitation and Unsustainable Use
Pollution and Nutrient Load
Invasive Alien Species
Combined Pressures from Above Threats
Response to Threats
Future of Biodiversity
Reducing Future Threats to Biodiversity
Cross-References
References
Socio-environmental
Socio-environmental Food Systems Under Anthropogenic Climate Change: The Water-Energy-Food Nexus Perspective
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Anthropogenic Climate Change and the Anthropocene
The Concept of Sustainable Development and Action of the United Nations
Linking Food Systems, Agriculture and Food Security to SDG 15
Sustainable Food Systems: The Water-Energy-Food Nexus Perspective
Conclusions and Perspectives
Cross-References
References
Soil Contamination and Remediation
Definitions
Introduction
The Soil Contamination Problem Revisited
Remediation of Polluted Soils
The Reuse of Waste Materials in the Recovery of Degraded Soils
The LIFE No_Waste Project
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Soil Degradation Processes, Causes, and Assessment Approaches
Definitions
Introduction
Causes of Soil Degradation
Types of Soil Degradation
Other Types of Soil Degradation
Desertification
Soil Degradation Assessment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Soil Fertility, Integrated Management, and Sustainability
Definitions
Introduction
Soil Degradation
Soil Fertility and Sustainable Development Goals
Factors that Influence Soil Fertility
Soil pH
Soil Erosion
Cropping Methods
Soil Water Loss
Nitrogen Loss
Excess Nutrients
Toxic Chemicals and Pesticides
Sustainable Soil Management Techniques
Stabilizing the Soil pH
Manures and Fertilizers
Soil Conservation Techniques
Reducing Soil Toxicity
Sustainable Water Management
Outlook
References
Soil Health Restoration to Address Food and Water Security
Synonyms
Definitions
Interconnected Global Soil Degradation and Water Scarcity
Comprehensive Program for Soil Health Restoration
Historical Roots to Soil Degradation
Comprehensive Soil Health Assessment
Continuum of Strategies: From Management to Restoration
Jump-Starting Restoration of Desertified Soils
Integrating Soil and Water Management for Sustainable Food Security and Resilient Ecosystems
Outlook: A Vision for Moving Forward
Cross-References
References
Soil Quality
Soil Sustainability
Species Extinction
Stakeholder Approaches
Stakeholder Engagement in Environmental Decision-Making Processes
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Stakeholder Typologies and Identification
Regulations Related to Stakeholder Engagement
Stakeholder Analysis Overview
Practical Implications of Stakeholders Analysis
Cross-References
References
Supporting Ecological Services
Supporting Ecosystem Goods and Services
Supporting Ecosystem Services: Concepts and Linkages to Sustainability
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction to Supporting Ecosystem Services
Evolution of the Concept and Terminology of Supporting Ecosystem Services
``Supporting Ecosystem Services´´ Within the Ecosystem Services´ Conceptual Frameworks
Characteristics of Supporting Ecosystem Services
Different Types of Supporting Ecosystem Services
Primary Production
Secondary Production
Biodiversity
Genetic Resources
Oxygen
Water
Soil Processes
Nutrient Cycling
Habitat
Pollination
Supporting Ecosystem Services from Different Ecosystem Types
Economic Valuation of ``Supporting Ecosystem Services´´
Supporting Ecosystem Services and Sustainability
Supporting Ecosystem Services and Sustainable Development Goal 15: Life on Earth
Conclusions and Future Research Needs
Cross-References
References
Survival of Biological Diversity
Sustainable Development of Territories After Chernobyl Disaster
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Overview of the Main Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident
Environmental Consequences
Public Health Consequences
Social and Economic Consequences
Chernobyl Disaster-Related Legislation
Sustainable Development to Overcome the Consequences of the Chernobyl Disaster
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sustainable Fire Management
Definitions
Introduction
Drivers of Fire Activity and the Role of Fire Management
Suppression-Centered Fire Management Policies: Development and Consequences
Inertia in Suppression-Centered Fire Management Policies
Towards Sustainable Fire Management
An Example of Sustainable Fire Management: The West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WALFA) Program
Sustainable Fire Management and Means to Implement SDG15
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sustainable Management of Plant Species
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
Definitions
Introduction
What Are Natural Resources?
What Is Use?
What Is Sustainable Use?
Why Is Natural Resource Use a Pressing Issue for Sustainability?
What Concepts, Theories, or Approaches Exist to Help Us Understand and Communicate on the Sustainability of Natural Resource U...
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Synergies and Trade-Offs Between Ecosystem Services
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
What Are Trade-Offs in Ecosystem Services?
Co-occurrences and Trade-Offs
Trade-Offs in Potential Supply
Demand-Side-Driven Trade-Offs
Use, Demand, and Preferences
Temporal Dynamics
Social Scale
Making the Painful Visible
Constraints
System Boundaries
Uncertainty
Distributional Trade-Offs
Value Conflicts
Balancing Multiple Objectives in Decision-Making
Improving Decisions on Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs
Modelling
Deliberation and Decision-Making Processes
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
T
TEEB
Temple Forests
Tendency
The Forest Cover Shift Stages
Tidal Forest
Tidal Forested Wetland
Traditional and Indigenous Knowledge: Bridging Past and Future Sustainable Development
Definitions
Introduction
Indigenous People: Identity and Rights
Indigenous, Traditional, and Modern Knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity Preservation and Research
Indigenous Knowledge, Protected Area Management, and Governance
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Websites
Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge
Definitions
Introduction
Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge
Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge and Sustainable Forest Management
Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Sustainable Development
Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge, Its Challenges, and Opportunities
Traditional Forest Plant-Related Knowledge in Bangladesh: An Instance with Comparison
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Transgenic Crops
Transgenic Crops Impact
Transgenic Plants
Transgenic Plants Impact
Tree Plantations
Tree Planting
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview
Definitions
Introduction
Tropical Forests
Ecological Perspectives
Socioeconomic Perspectives
General Aspects of Management and Global Initiatives for Forest Conservation
Bangladesh Forests as a Case
Conclusions
References
Tropical Savannas and Conciliating Production with Conservation Strategies: The Case of Brazil
Definitions
Land Use and Ecosystems for Achieving the SDGs
The Role of Tropical Savannas for Achieving the SDGs: A Production and Protection Agenda
A Case Study on the Making: The Cerrado Savannas of Brazil Current Land Use and Future Needs
Concrete Examples of Production and Protection in the Cerrado
Some Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
U
Urban Growth and Biodiversity Conservation
Definition
Introduction
Growth of Area and Population, and the Factors That Determine Impacts on Biodiversity
The Impact of Cities on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Urban Metabolism and the Impact of Cities Beyond Their Borders
Urban Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions Are Crucial for Biodiversity and Human Well-Being
Good Practices Toward Restoring Biodiversity in Urban Ecosystems
Cities Represent an Opportunity to Learn on the Road to Sustainable Management
Cross-References
References
V
Vegetation Types and Representativeness
Definition
Plant Community, Vegetation and Ecosystem
Classification of Vegetation Types
Vegetation Types and Representativeness
Cross-References
References
W
Water Scarcity
Wetland Conservation and Sustainable Development in Kerala, India
Definitions
Introduction
Wetlands of Kerala
Deterioration of the Wetlands
Policy and Legal Framework for Wetland Conservation
Schemes/Programs for Wetland Conservation
Challenges to Wetland Conservation
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Wild Food
Wild Forest Products
Wild Harvested Products
Wildlife and Sustainable Development
Definitions
Introduction
Examples of Different Impacts on Wildlife and Sustainable Practices
Sustainable Development of Giant Panda Habitats
Illegal Capture of Migratory Passerines in the Mediterranean Basin
Illegal Trade of Rhinoceros´ Horns
Critically Endangered Orangutans
Reestablishment of Iberian Lynx and their Habitats in the Iberian Peninsula
An Amphibian Species at the Brink of Extinction
Tourism as a Threat to Islands´ Endemic Reptiles
Future Directions
References