Western indulgence with Lebanon ended in February 1984. The bombing of the United States Marines barracks in Beirut on October 23, 1983, with the loss of 241 American lives, and the death of some 59 French peacekeeping troops in a similar blast that day, proved how unstable the reconstruction environment was (see Internal Security and Terrorism , ch. 5). Fighting in the Shuf Mountains during the autumn of 1983 illustrated the difficulty of asserting government control even when occupying forces pulled back. Most of the MNF troops pulled out with the partition of Beirut and the renewed fragmentation of the Lebanese Army, although the French and Italians delayed their departure for humanitarian reasons.
Author(s): Federal Research Division
Year: 2004
Language: English
Pages: 264
Federal Research Division......Page 1
Foreward......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 7
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS......Page 8
INTRODUCTION......Page 9
ANCIENT TIMES......Page 12
Babylonian Rule and the Persian Empire......Page 13
LEBANON......Page 14
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 15
PREFACE......Page 16
SOCIETY......Page 17
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS......Page 18
INTRODUCTION......Page 19
ANCIENT TIMES......Page 23
Assyrian Rule......Page 24
The Seleucid Dynasty......Page 25
The Umayyads, 660-750......Page 26
The Abbasids, 750-1258......Page 27
The Crusades, 1095-1291......Page 28
OTTOMAN RULE, 1516-1916......Page 29
The Maans, 1120-1697......Page 30
The Shihabs, 1697-1842......Page 31
Religious Conflicts......Page 32
WORLD WAR I AND THE FRENCH MANDATE, 1914-41......Page 34
World War II and Independence, 1939-41......Page 35
INDEPENDENT LEBANON, 1943-76......Page 37
The Shamun Era, 1952-58......Page 38
The Rise of Shihabism, 1958-64......Page 40
The Hilu Era, 1964-70......Page 41
The Franjiyah Era, 1970-76......Page 42
The Civil War, 1975-76......Page 44
The Sarkis Administration, 1976-82......Page 46
CHAPTER 2. The Society and Its Environment......Page 50
GEOGRAPHY......Page 51
Land......Page 52
Climate......Page 54
Rivers and Lakes......Page 55
POPULATION......Page 56
Migration......Page 57
The Palestinian Element......Page 59
SECTARIANISM......Page 60
Lebanese Confessional “Societies”......Page 61
Sectarian and Clan Consciousness......Page 62
RELIGION......Page 63
Tenets of Islam......Page 64
Muslim Sects......Page 65
Twelver or Imami Shias......Page 66
Ismailis......Page 67
Alawis......Page 68
Christian Sects......Page 69
Roman Catholics......Page 71
Armenian Orthodox or Gregorian......Page 72
Jews......Page 73
Arabic......Page 74
Other Languages......Page 75
The Family......Page 76
Marriage......Page 77
Child-Rearing Practices......Page 79
Impact of War on the Family......Page 80
Wartime Conditions......Page 81
EDUCATION......Page 82
Intermediate Education......Page 83
Technical and Vocational Education......Page 84
HEALTH......Page 85
CHAPTER 3. THE ECONOMY......Page 87
RECENT ECONOMIC HISTORY......Page 89
Invasion and Trauma, 1982-87......Page 92
THE OFFICIAL ECONOMY IN THE MID-1980s......Page 93
External Debt and Foreign Exchange......Page 94
The Budget......Page 95
BANKING AND FINANCE......Page 96
The Central Bank......Page 98
International Banking......Page 100
Roads......Page 101
Shipping......Page 103
Aviation......Page 105
Telecommunications......Page 107
Land and Irrigation......Page 108
Crop Production......Page 110
INDUSTRY......Page 113
Cement......Page 114
Electric Power and Petroleum Refining......Page 115
AID AND RECONSTRUCTION......Page 117
Arab Reconstruction Aid......Page 118
Post-Israeli Invasion Reconstruction, 1982-84......Page 120
Reconstruction and Chaos, 1984-87......Page 121
CHAPTER 4. Government and Politics......Page 124
The Constitution......Page 126
The National Pact......Page 127
Zuama Clientelism......Page 128
The Presidency......Page 130
The Prime Minister and the Cabinet......Page 131
The Legislature......Page 133
The Judiciary......Page 135
The Bureaucracy......Page 136
POLITICAL PARTIES AND GROUPINGS......Page 137
Sectarian Groups......Page 138
National Liberal Party......Page 139
Lebanese Forces......Page 140
Amal......Page 141
Hizballah......Page 142
Islamic Grouping......Page 143
Independent Nasserite Movement......Page 144
Progressive Socialist Party......Page 145
Minority Parties......Page 146
Multisectarian Parties......Page 147
Lebanese Communist Party......Page 148
Organization of Communist Action......Page 149
Syria......Page 150
Israel......Page 152
Palestinians......Page 154
United States......Page 155
Soviet Union......Page 156
CHAPTER 5. National Security......Page 157
THE CREATION OF THE ARMY......Page 159
The 1958 Civil War......Page 161
The Cairo Agreement and the Prelude to the 1975 Civil War......Page 162
The Military Cabinet......Page 164
The Early Stages of Combat......Page 165
The Riyadh Conference and the Arab Deterrent Force......Page 167
THE INTERWAR YEARS......Page 168
Operation Litani......Page 169
Operations of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon......Page 170
The Ascendancy of Bashir Jumayyil......Page 171
The Two-Week War......Page 172
THE 1982 ISRAELI INVASION AND ITS AFTERMATH......Page 173
Operation Peace for Galilee......Page 174
The Siege of Beirut......Page 175
The Multinational Force......Page 177
The May 17 Agreement......Page 179
The Israeli Defense Forces Withdrawal and the Mountain War......Page 180
The Multinational Force Withdrawal......Page 181
The Bikfayya Accord......Page 182
Events in Southern Lebanon......Page 183
Chaos in Beirut and Syrian Peacemaking Efforts......Page 184
The Tripartite Accord......Page 185
Pax Syriana......Page 186
THE LEBANESE ARMED FORCES IN THE 1980s......Page 187
Organization and Command Structure......Page 188
Military Intelligence......Page 189
The Commander in Chief......Page 190
The Sixth Brigade......Page 191
The Ninth Brigade......Page 192
The Air Force and Navy......Page 193
INTERNAL SECURITY AND TERRORISM......Page 194
Suicide Bombings......Page 195
The Hostage Crisis......Page 196
