Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics

Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics
Half Title Page
Editors of Previous Editions
Title Page
CONTENTS
Symbols Used Throughout the Book
PREFACE TO THE TWELFTH EDITION
An Introduction to Language Files
Changes in the Current Edition
Further Resources for Using Language Files
Contributors to the 12th Edition
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
FILE 1.0: What Is Language?
Contents
FILE 1.1: Introducing the Study of Language
1.1.1 Why Study Language?
1.1.2 Some Surprising but True Things about Language
1.1.3 Some Common Misconceptions about Language
1.1.4 Underlying Themes of Linguistic Study
1.1.5 How to Use This Book
FILE 1.2: What You Know When You Know a Language
1.2.1 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance
1.2.2 The Speech Communication Chain
1.2.3 What You Know When You Know a Language
1.2.4 How Your Linguistic Competence Is Stored
1.2.5 Uncovering and Describing What You Know
FILE 1.3: Other (Non-Essential) Aspects of Knowing a Language
1.3.1 What Language Inherently Is and Is Not
1.3.2 Writing Is Secondary to Speech (And Not Necessary for Knowledge of a Language)
1.3.3 Language Is Not Prescriptive Grammar
FILE 1.4: Design Features of Language
1.4.1 How to Identify Language When We Come across It
1.4.2 Mode of Communication
1.4.3 Semanticity
1.4.4 Pragmatic Function
1.4.5 Interchangeability
1.4.6 Cultural Transmission
1.4.7 Arbitrariness
1.4.8 Discreteness
1.4.9 Displacement
1.4.10 Productivity
1.4.11 What the Design Features Tell Us, and What They Don’t Tell Us
FILE 1.5: Language Modality
1.5.1 Auditory-Vocal and Visual-Gestural Languages
1.5.2 Some Common Misconceptions about Visual-Gestural Languages
1.5.3 Who Uses Signed Languages?
1.5.4 Representing Signs in a Two-Dimensional Format
1.5.5 The Importance of Studying Different Modalities
FILE 1.6: Practice
File 1.1—Introducing the Study of Language
File 1.2—What You Know When You Know a Language
File 1.3—Other (Non-Essential) Aspects of Knowing a Language
File 1.4—Design Features of Language
File 1.5—Language Modality
Further Readings
CHAPTER 2: Phonetics
FILE 2.0: What Is Phonetics?
Contents
FILE 2.1: Representing Speech Sounds
2.1.1 Studying Pronunciation
2.1.2 The “Right” Phonetic Alphabet
2.1.3 Types of Speech Sounds
2.1.4 Phonetic Symbols for English
FILE 2.2: Articulation: English Consonants
2.2.1 Introducing Articulatory Phonetics
2.2.2 Anatomy of Human Speech Production
2.2.3 States of the Glottis: Voicing
2.2.4 Place of Articulation
2.2.5 Manner of Articulation
2.2.6 Investigating Place and Manner of Articulation: Palatography
2.2.7 The Consonant Chart
FILE 2.3: Articulation: English Vowels
2.3.1 Articulatory Properties of Vowels
2.3.2 Tongue Height
2.3.3 Tongue Advancement
2.3.4 Lip Rounding
2.3.5 Tenseness
2.3.6 Describing Vowels: Diphthongs
2.3.7 Investigating Vowel Articulations
FILE 2.4: Beyond English: Speech Sounds of the World’s Languages
2.4.1 Beyond English?
2.4.2 Vowels
2.4.3 Fricatives
2.4.4 Filling in Other Blanks in the Consonant Chart
2.4.5 Places of Articulation Not Used in English
2.4.6 Manners of Articulation Not Used in English
FILE 2.5: Suprasegmental Features
2.5.1 Segmental vs. Suprasegmental Features
2.5.2 Length
2.5.3 Intonation
2.5.4 Tone
2.5.5 Stress
FILE 2.6: Acoustic Phonetics
2.6.1 Articulatory vs. Acoustic Phonetics
2.6.2 Simple Sound Waves
2.6.3 Complex Sound Waves
2.6.4 Vowels
2.6.5 Stops
2.6.6 Fricatives
2.6.7 Nasals, Liquids, and Glides
2.6.8 Interpreting Spectrograms
FILE 2.7: The Phonetics of Signed Languages
2.7.1 Extending Phonetics to Signed Languages
2.7.2 The Parameters of Articulation in Signed Languages
2.7.3 Location
2.7.4 Movement
2.7.5 Handshape
2.7.6 Orientation
2.7.7 Non-Manual Markers
2.7.8 Phonetic Inventories in Signed Languages
2.7.9 Studying and Analyzing the Phonetics of Signed Languages
FILE 2.8: Practice
File 2.1—Representing Speech Sounds
File 2.2—Articulation: English Consonants
File 2.3—Articulation: English Vowels
File 2.4—Beyond English: Speech Sounds of the World’s Languages
File 2.5—Suprasegmental Features
File 2.6—Acoustic Phonetics
File 2.7—The Phonetics of Signed Languages
Further Readings
CHAPTER 3: Phonology
FILE 3.0: What Is Phonology?
Contents
FILE 3.1: Phonotactic Constraints and Foreign Accents
3.1.1 Phonotactic Constraints
3.1.2 Phonotactic Constraints in Signed Languages
3.1.3 Foreign Accents
FILE 3.2: Phonemes and Allophones
3.2.1 Different Sounds Have Different Distributions
3.2.2 Allophones and Phonemes
3.2.3 Identifying Phonemes and Allophones: The Distribution of Speech Sounds
3.2.4 Free Variation
FILE 3.3: Phonological Rules
3.3.1 Phonological Rules
3.3.2 Natural Classes
3.3.3 Types of Phonological Rules
3.3.4 Multiple Rule Application
3.3.5 Obligatory and Optional Rules
FILE 3.4: Implicational Laws
3.4.1 Recurring Phonological Patterns
3.4.2 Sound Inventories
3.4.3 Frequency and Distribution
3.4.4 Acquisition of Sounds
3.4.5 Sound Change
3.4.6 Explaining Implicational Laws
FILE 3.5: How to Solve Phonology Problems
3.5.1 Goals of Phonemic Analysis
3.5.2 How to Do a Phonemic Analysis
3.5.3 Some Potential Trouble Spots
3.5.4 Flowchart for Discovering the Distribution of Sounds
FILE 3.6: Practice
File 3.1—Phonotactic Constraints and Foreign Accents
File 3.2—Phonemes and Allophones
File 3.3—Phonological Rules
File 3.4—Implicational Laws
File 3.5—How to Solve Phonology Problems
Further Readings
CHAPTER 4: Morphology
FILE 4.0: What Is Morphology?
Contents
FILE 4.1: Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon
4.1.1 What Are Words Like?
4.1.2 Derivation
4.1.3 Inflection
4.1.4 Some Notes about Morphemes
4.1.5 Classifying Elements in Morphology
4.1.6 Derived and Inflected Words in the Lexicon
FILE 4.2: Morphological Processes
4.2.1 The Processes of Forming Words
4.2.2 Affixation
4.2.3 Affixation in Signed Languages
4.2.4 Compounding
4.2.5 Reduplication
4.2.6 Alternations
4.2.7 Suppletion
FILE 4.3: Morphological Types of Languages
4.3.1 Classifying Languages by Morphological Type
4.3.2 Analytic Languages
4.3.3 Synthetic Languages
4.3.4 The First Type of Synthetic Language: Agglutinating Languages
4.3.5 The Second Type of Synthetic Language: Fusional Languages
4.3.6 The Third Type of Synthetic Language: Polysynthetic Languages
FILE 4.4: The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words
4.4.1 How Words Are Put Together
4.4.2 Ambiguous Morphemes and Words
4.4.3 Morphemes That Can Attach to More than One Lexical Category
FILE 4.5: Morphological Analysis
4.5.1 The Nature and Goals of Morphological Analysis
4.5.2 Procedure for Performing Morphological Analysis
4.5.3 Some Cautionary Notes
FILE 4.6: Practice
File 4.1—Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon
File 4.2—Morphological Processes
File 4.3—Morphological Types of Languages
File 4.4—The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words
File 4.5—Morphological Analysis
Further Readings
CHAPTER 5: Syntax
FILE 5.0: What Is Syntax?
Contents
FILE 5.1: Basic Ideas of Syntax
5.1.1 (Un)Grammaticality
5.1.2 The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics
FILE 5.2: Syntactic Properties
5.2.1 What Are Syntactic Properties?
5.2.2 Word Order
5.2.3 Co-Occurrence
FILE 5.3: Syntactic Constituency
5.3.1 What Are Syntactic Constituents?
5.3.2 Answers to Questions
5.3.3 Clefting
5.3.4 Pro-Form Substitution
FILE 5.4: Syntactic Categories
5.4.1 What Are Syntactic Categories?
5.4.2 Syntactic Categories in English
FILE 5.5: Constructing a Grammar
5.5.1 Why Construct Grammars
5.5.2 Parts of the Grammar: The Lexicon and the Rules
5.5.3 Ambiguity
FILE 5.6: Practice
File 5.1—Basic Ideas of Syntax
File 5.2—Syntactic Properties
File 5.3—Syntactic Constituency
File 5.4—Syntactic Categories
File 5.5—Constructing a Grammar
Further Readings
CHAPTER 6: Semantics
FILE 6.0: What Is Semantics?
Contents
FILE 6.1: An Overview of Semantics
6.1.1 Lexical and Compositional Semantics
6.1.2 Two Aspects of Linguistic Meaning
FILE 6.2: Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words
6.2.1 Dictionary Definitions
6.2.2 Word Senses
6.2.3 Word Reference
6.2.4 Meaning Relationships
FILE 6.3: Compositional Semantics: The Meanings of Sentences
6.3.1 Propositions and Truth Values
6.3.2 Relationships between Propositions
FILE 6.4: Compositional Semantics: Putting Meanings Together
6.4.1 The Principle of Compositionality
6.4.2 Combining the Meanings of Verb Phrases and Noun Phrases
6.4.3 Combining the Meanings of Adjectives and Nouns
FILE 6.5: Practice
File 6.1—An Overview of Semantics
File 6.2—Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words
File 6.3—Compositional Semantics: The Meanings of Sentences
File 6.4—Compositional Semantics: Putting Meanings Together
Further Readings
CHAPTER 7: Pragmatics
FILE 7.0: What Is Pragmatics?
Contents
FILE 7.1: Language in Context
7.1.1 The Importance of Context
7.1.2 Sentences and Utterances
7.1.3 How Context Affects Meaning
7.1.4 Types of Context
7.1.5 Felicity: Appropriateness Relative to a Context
FILE 7.2: Rules of Conversation
7.2.1 Rules for Conversation
7.2.2 Introducing Grice’s Maxims
7.2.3 Flouting Maxims
7.2.4 Grice’s Maxims in a Wider Context
FILE 7.3: Drawing Conclusions
7.3.1 Drawing Conclusions: Entailment
7.3.2 Drawing Conclusions: Inference, Implication, and Implicature
7.3.3 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Relevance
7.3.4 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quantity
7.3.5 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Manner
7.3.6 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quality
7.3.7 The Significance of Implicatures to Communication
FILE 7.4: Speech Acts
7.4.1 An Introduction to Speech Acts
7.4.2 Felicity Conditions
7.4.3 Performative Verbs and Performative Speech Acts
7.4.4 Identifying Performative Speech Acts
7.4.5 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
7.4.6 Identifying Indirect Speech Acts
7.4.7 Sentences and Their Relation to Speech Acts
FILE 7.5: Presupposition
7.5.1 Presuppositions of Existence
7.5.2 Presuppositions and Truth Values
7.5.3 Prosody as a Presupposition Trigger
7.5.4 Presupposition Accommodation
FILE 7.6: Practice
File 7.1—Language in Context
File 7.2—Rules of Conversation
File 7.3—Drawing Conclusions
File 7.4—Speech Acts
File 7.5—Presupposition
Further Readings
CHAPTER 8: Language Acquisition
FILE 8.0: What Is Language Acquisition?
Contents
FILE 8.1: Theories of Language Acquisition
8.1.1 About Language Acquisition
8.1.2 The Innateness Hypothesis
8.1.3 Imitation Theory
8.1.4 Reinforcement Theory
8.1.5 Active Construction of a Grammar Theory
8.1.6 Connectionist Theories
8.1.7 Social Interaction Theory
FILE 8.2: First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
8.2.1 Physiological Prerequisites of Sound Perception and Production
8.2.2 Babbling
8.2.3 Phonological Acquisition
8.2.4 Language Development from Birth to Twelve Months
FILE 8.3: First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning
8.3.1 The Acquisition of Morphology and Syntax
8.3.2 The One-Word Stage
8.3.3 The Two-Word Stage
8.3.4 Later Stages of Development
8.3.5 The Acquisition of Word Meaning
8.3.6 Overview: Language Abilities from Twelve Months to Four Years
FILE 8.4: How Adults Talk to Young Children
8.4.1 Talking to Children
8.4.2 How Adults Get Children to Pay Attention
8.4.3 What Adults Say to Young Children
8.4.4 How Adults Talk to Children
8.4.5 How Necessary Is Child-Directed Speech?
FILE 8.5: Bilingual Language Acquisition
8.5.1 Scenarios of Bilingual Language Acquisition
8.5.2 Bilingual First-Language Acquisition
8.5.3 Bilingual vs. Monolingual First-Language Acquisition
8.5.4 Second-Language Acquisition
FILE 8.6: Practice
File 8.1—Theories of Language Acquisition
File 8.2—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
File 8.3—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning
File 8.4—How Adults Talk to Young Children
File 8.5—Bilingual Language Acquisition
Further Readings
CHAPTER 9: Psycholinguistics
FILE 9.0: How Do Our Minds Understand and Produce Language?
Contents
FILE 9.1: Language and the Brain
9.1.1 Why Study the Brain?
9.1.2 Physical Features of the Brain
9.1.3 The Flow of Linguistic Information
9.1.4 Lateralization and Contralateralization
FILE 9.2: Language Disorders
9.2.1 Language Disorders
9.2.2 Broca’s Aphasia
9.2.3 Wernicke’s Aphasia
9.2.4 Conduction Aphasia
9.2.5 Problems with the Angular Gyrus
9.2.6 Aphasia in Signers
9.2.7 Specific Language Impairment, Williams Syndrome, and the Innateness Hypothesis
FILE 9.3: Speech Production
9.3.1 From Thought to Utterance
9.3.2 Models of Speech Production
9.3.3 Factors Affecting Speech Production
9.3.4 Production Errors: Slips of the Tongue
9.3.5 Production Errors: Slips of the Hands
9.3.6 Learning from Our Mistakes
FILE 9.4: Speech Perception
9.4.1 Receiving Messages
9.4.2 Speaker Normalization
9.4.3 Categorical Perception
9.4.4 Context and Rate Effects
9.4.5 The McGurk Effect
9.4.6 Other Factors Involved in Speech Perception
FILE 9.5: Lexical Access
9.5.1 What Is Lexical Access?
9.5.2 The Mental Lexicon
9.5.3 Word Recognition
9.5.4 The Cohort Model
9.5.5 Neural Network Models
9.5.6 Lexical Ambiguity
FILE 9.6: Sentence Processing
9.6.1 How Do We Put Words Together?
9.6.2 Structural Ambiguity
FILE 9.7: Experimental Methods in Psycholinguistics
9.7.1 Some General Issues
9.7.2 Measuring Activity in the Brain
9.7.3 Choosing a Method
9.7.4 Tasks for Lexical Processing
9.7.5 Tasks for Sentence Processing
FILE 9.8: Practice
File 9.1—Language and the Brain
File 9.2—Language Disorders
File 9.3—Speech Production
File 9.4—Speech Perception
File 9.5—Lexical Access
File 9.6—Sentence Processing
File 9.7—Experimental Methods in Psycholinguistics
Further Readings
CHAPTER 10: Language Variation
FILE 10.0: What Is Language Variation?
Contents
FILE 10.1: Language Varieties
10.1.1 Languages, Dialects, and Idiolects
10.1.2 Style and Register
10.1.3 Jargon and Slang
10.1.4 Standard Dialects and Notions of Prestige
FILE 10.2: Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure
10.2.1 Variation at All Levels
10.2.2 Phonetic Variation
10.2.3 Phonological Variation
10.2.4 Morphological Variation
10.2.5 Syntactic Variation
10.2.6 Lexical Variation
FILE 10.3: Factors Influencing Variation: Regional and Geographic Factors
10.3.1 Why Does Language Vary?
10.3.2 Regional and Geographic Variation
10.3.3 A Case Study in Regional Variation: The United States
10.3.4 The North
10.3.5 New England
10.3.6 The South
10.3.7 Appalachia
10.3.8 The Midland
10.3.9 The West
FILE 10.4: Factors Influencing Variation: Social Factors
10.4.1 Social Influences on Language Variation
10.4.2 Socioeconomic Variation
10.4.3 Age Variation
10.4.4 Gender Variation
10.4.5 Ethnic Variation
FILE 10.5: Language and Identity
10.5.1 Using Language to Mark Identity
10.5.2 Defining “Identity”
10.5.3 Signaling Identity
10.5.4 Studying Identity
10.5.5 Martha’s Vineyard: A Case Study in Language and Identity
FILE 10.6: Practice
File 10.1—Language Varieties
File 10.2—Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure
File 10.3—Factors Influencing Variation: Regional and Geographic Factors
File 10.4—Factors Influencing Variation: Social Factors
File 10.5—Language and Identity
Further Readings
CHAPTER 11: Language and Culture
FILE 11.0: What Is the Study of “Language and Culture”?
Contents
FILE 11.1: Linguistic Anthropology
11.1.1 What Is Linguistic Anthropology?
11.1.2 Kinship Terms
11.1.3 Communicative Competence
11.1.4 Indexicality
FILE 11.2: Language and Thought
11.2.1 What Is Linguistic Relativity?
11.2.2 Early Studies in Linguistic Relativity
11.2.3 Criticism of the Early Studies
11.2.4 More Recent Investigation of Linguistic Relativity
11.2.5 Beyond Relativity: Linguistic Determinism and Cultural Anthropology
11.2.6 Is Linguistic Relativity True?
FILE 11.3: Language and Power
11.3.1 The Role of Language in Power Relationships
11.3.2 Power in Conversations
11.3.3 Power in Society
FILE 11.4: Politeness
11.4.1 Politeness across Cultures
11.4.2 Indirectness
11.4.3 Honorifics
11.4.4 The T/V Distinction
11.4.5 Face Theory
FILE 11.5: Ethnography
11.5.1 What Is Ethnography?
11.5.2 Etic and Emic
11.5.3 A Case Study in Ethnography: Jocks and Burnouts at Belten High
FILE 11.6: Practice
File 11.1—Linguistic Anthropology
File 11.2—Language and Thought
File 11.3—Language and Power
File 11.4—Politeness
File 11.5—Ethnography
Further Readings
CHAPTER 12: Language Contact
FILE 12.0: What Is Language Contact?
Contents
FILE 12.1: Language Contact
12.1.1 Languages in Contact
12.1.2 Levels of Borrowing
12.1.3 Contact Situations
12.1.4 Outcomes of Language Contact
FILE 12.2: Borrowings into English
12.2.1 Lexical Borrowing
12.2.2 Sources of English Words
FILE 12.3: Pidgin Languages
12.3.1 The Development of Pidgin Languages
12.3.2 Common Features of Pidgins
12.3.3 Sources of Pidgin Lexicon and Grammar
FILE 12.4: Creole Languages
12.4.1 Social Contexts of Creole Formation
12.4.2 Shared Features
FILE 12.5: Societal Multilingualism
12.5.1 Societal Multilingualism
12.5.2 Code-Switching and Diglossia
FILE 12.6: Language Endangerment and Language Death
12.6.1 Minority Language Status
12.6.2 From Minority Status to Endangerment
12.6.3 Can Dying/Dead Languages Be Revived?
12.6.4 What Happens to a Language as It Loses Speakers and Dies?
12.6.5 A Final Word (Or Two)
FILE 12.7: Case Studies in Language Contact
12.7.1 Introduction
12.7.2 Kupwar
12.7.3 Deitsch
12.7.4 Conclusion
FILE 12.8: Practice
File 12.1—Language Contact
File 12.2—Borrowings into English
File 12.3—Pidgin Languages
File 12.4—Creole Languages
File 12.5—Societal Multilingualism
File 12.6—Language Endangerment and Language Death
File 12.7—Case Studies in Language Contact
Further Readings
CHAPTER 13: Language Change
FILE 13.0: What Is Language Change?
Contents
FILE 13.1: Introducing Language Change
13.1.1 Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics
13.1.2 How Does Language Change?
13.1.3 Why Does a Language Change?
13.1.4 Is Language Change Bad?
FILE 13.2: Language Relatedness
13.2.1 Similarities across Languages
13.2.2 Models of Language Relatedness
FILE 13.3: Sound Change
13.3.1 What Is Sound Change?
13.3.2 Phonetic vs. Phonological Change
13.3.3 The Regularity of Sound Change
13.3.4 Types of Sound Change
FILE 13.4: Morphological Change
13.4.1 What Is Morphological Change?
13.4.2 Proportional Analogy and Paradigm Leveling
13.4.3 Back Formation and Folk Etymology
13.4.4 Adding New Words to a Language
FILE 13.5: Syntactic Change
13.5.1 Defining Syntactic Change
13.5.2 Changes in Word Order
13.5.3 Changes in Co-Occurrence
13.5.4 Causes of Syntactic Change
FILE 13.6: Semantic Change
13.6.1 Changing the Meanings of Words
13.6.2 Semantic Extensions
13.6.3 Semantic Reductions
13.6.4 Semantic Elevations
13.6.5 Semantic Degradations
13.6.6 Interactions of Semantic Changes
FILE 13.7: Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction
13.7.1 Reconstruction
13.7.2 Internal Reconstruction
13.7.3 Comparative Reconstruction
13.7.4 Comparative Method Procedure
FILE 13.8: Practice
File 13.1—Introducing Language Change
File 13.2—Language Relatedness
File 13.3—Sound Change
File 13.4—Morphological Change
File 13.5—Syntactic Change
File 13.6—Semantic Change
File 13.7—Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction
Further Readings
CHAPTER 14: Animal Communication
FILE 14.0: How Do Animals Communicate?
Contents
FILE 14.1: Communication and Language
14.1.1 Design Features Revisited
14.1.2 Design Features Shared by All Communication Systems
14.1.3 Design Features Exhibited by Some Animal Communication Systems
14.1.4 Design Features Not Found in Animal Communication Systems
14.1.5 What the Design Features Show Us about Animal Communication
FILE 14.2: Animal Communication in the Wild
14.2.1 Bee Communication
14.2.2 Bird Communication
14.2.3 Primate Communication
14.2.4 Concluding Remarks
FILE 14.3: Can Animals Be Taught Language?
14.3.1 Attempts to Teach Animals Language
14.3.2 Primate Studies
14.3.3 Non-Primate Studies
FILE 14.4: Practice
File 14.1—Communication and Language
File 14.2—Animal Communication in the Wild
File 14.3—Can Animals Be Taught Language?
Further Readings
CHAPTER 15: Writing Systems
FILE 15.0: What Is Writing?
Contents
FILE 15.1: Writing, Language, and Culture
15.1.1 What Is Writing?
15.1.2 Writing and Language
15.1.3 Writing and Culture
15.1.4 Functional Writing Systems
15.1.5 Computer-Mediated Communication
FILE 15.2: Types of Writing Systems
15.2.1 Classifying Writing Systems
15.2.2 Morphographic Writing Systems
15.2.3 Phonographic Writing Systems
FILE 15.3: The Historical Evolution of Writing Systems
15.3.1 The Creation of Writing Systems
15.3.2 Early Writing Systems
15.3.3 The Development of the Greek and Roman Alphabets (and Other Writing Systems)
15.3.4 Deciphering Ancient Languages
FILE 15.4: Practice
File 15.1—Writing, Language, and Culture
File 15.2—Types of Writing Systems
File 15.3—The Historical Evolution of Writing Systems
Further Readings
CHAPTER 16: Language and Computers
FILE 16.0: What Is Computational Linguistics?
Contents
FILE 16.1: Speech Synthesis
16.1.1 Synthesized Speech
16.1.2 The Earliest Synthesis Machines
16.1.3 Articulatory Synthesis
16.1.4 Concatenative Synthesis
16.1.5 Text-To Speech Synthesis
16.1.6 Applications of Speech Synthesis
FILE 16.2: Automatic Speech Recognition
16.2.1 The Nature of Speech Recognition
16.2.2 The Noisy Channel Model
16.2.3 Components of an Automatic Speech Recognition System
16.2.4 Types of Speech Recognition Systems
16.2.5 Problems in Speech Recognition
16.2.6 Future Directions
FILE 16.3: Communicating with Computers
16.3.1 Interacting with Computers Using Natural Language
16.3.2 Interactive Text-Based Systems
16.3.3 Spoken-Language Dialogue Systems
16.3.4 Components of a Spoken-Language Dialogue System
16.3.5 Evaluation of Interactive Systems
FILE 16.4: Machine Translation
16.4.1 What Is Machine Translation?
16.4.2 The Translation Problem
16.4.3 MT System Design
FILE 16.5: Corpus Linguistics
16.5.1 What Is a Corpus?
16.5.2 Kinds of Corpora
FILE 16.6: Practice
File 16.1—Speech Synthesis
File 16.2—Automatic Speech Recognition
File 16.3—Communicating with Computers
File 16.4—Machine Translation
File 16.5—Corpus Linguistics
Further Readings
CHAPTER 17: Practical Applications
FILE 17.0: What Can You Do with Linguistics?
Contents
FILE 17.1: Language Education
17.1.1 Job Description
17.1.2 Jobs Available and Job Qualifications
17.1.3 Language Education and Linguistics
FILE 17.2: Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
17.2.1 Job Description
17.2.2 Job Qualifications
FILE 17.3: Forensic Linguistics
17.3.1 Legal Applications of Linguistics
17.3.2 Forensic Linguistics
17.3.3 Jobs Available and Job Qualifications
FILE 17.4: Language in Advertising
17.4.1 Language and the Goals of Advertising
17.4.2 Using Language to Establish Trust
17.4.3 Using Language to Convey a Message of Superiority
17.4.4 Job Qualifications
FILE 17.5: Codes and Code-Breaking
17.5.1 Code-Breaking
17.5.2 Alice, Bob, and Eve
17.5.3 The Limits of Secrecy
17.5.4 Traffic Analysis
17.5.5 Codes and Ciphers
17.5.6 Enigma
17.5.7 Job Qualifications
FILE 17.6: Being a Linguist
17.6.1 Job Description
17.6.2 Job Qualifications
FILE 17.7: Practice
File 17.1—Language Education
File 17.2—Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
File 17.3—Forensic Linguistics
File 17.4—Language in Advertising
File 17.5—Codes and Code-Breaking
File 17.6—Being a Linguist
Further Readings
APPENDIX: Answers to Example Exercises
File 3.6 Exercise 22—Phonology Exercise on Mokilese
File 4.6 Exercise 24(a)—Morphology Exercise on Hierarchical Structure
File 4.6 Exercise 29—Morphology Exercise on Isthmus Zapotec
File 7.6 Exercise 13—Pragmatics Exercise on the Maxim of Quantity
File 13.8 Exercise 34—Reconstruction Exercise on Middle Chinese
GLOSSARY
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
LANGUAGE INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Examples of Phonetic Symbols Found in Standard American English
a. Consonants
b. Vowels
Consonants of Standard American English
Vowels of Standard American English
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005)