Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology

Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1. Setting the Stage for Learning about the Earth
1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The Scientific Method
1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System
1.2.1 The Nature of Matter
1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System
1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System
1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressure in the Earth’s Crust
1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement
1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance
1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units
1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics”
1.4 The Challenges of Studying an Entire Planet
1.4.1 The Challenge of Scale
1.4.2 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time
1.5 Rates of Geologic Processes
Appendix 1.1: Metric-U.S. Customary Conversion Chart
Chapter 2. The Way the Earth Works: Examining Plate Tectonics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics
2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents
2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate Zones
2.3.3 Geographic Distribution of Earthquakes and Active Volcanoes
2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics
2.4.1 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Oceanic Magnetic Anomalies
2.4.2 Direct Measurement of Plate Motion
2.5 Processes at Plate Boundaries Revealed by Earth Features
2.5.1 Seafloor Spreading
2.5.2 Continental Rifting
2.5.3 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness of Subduction
2.5.4 Transform Faults
2.5.5 Hot-Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins
Chapter 3. Minerals
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classifying Earth Materials
3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn’t?
3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals
3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties
3.4.2 Luster
3.4.3 Color
3.4.4 Streak
3.4.5 Hardness
3.4.6 Crystal Habit
3.4.7 Breakage
3.4.8 Specific Gravity
3.4.9 Magnetism
3.4.10 Feel
3.4.11 Taste
3.4.12 Odor
3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
3.4.14 Tenacity
3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens
3.6 Mineral Classification
3.7 Minerals and the Economy
3.7.1 What Makes Minerals Valuable?
3.7.2 Economic Mineral Deposits
Appendix 3.1: Mineral Identification Flowcharts
Appendix 3.2: Determinative Tables for Systematic Mineral Identification
Appendix 3.3: Common Minerals and Their Properties
Chapter 4. Minerals, Rocks, and the Rock Cycle
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks
4.2.1 The Rock Cycle
4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals
4.3.1 Describing Texture
4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures
4.5 Clues about a Rock’s Origin from the Minerals It Contains
4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks
4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks
4.8 The Economic Value of Rocks
Chapter 5. Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth History
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories of Igneous Rocks
5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock
5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures
5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures
5.2.4 Fragmental Textures
5.2.5 Grain Shape
5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and Identification
5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major Compositional Groups
5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks
5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas
5.4.1 Where and Why Do Rocks and Minerals Melt?
5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt?
5.4.3 Factors Controlling Magma Composition
5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics
5.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks (Peridotite)
5.5.2 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks (Basalt and Gabbro)
5.5.3 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Igneous Rocks (Andesite and Diorite)
5.5.4 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite and Rhyolite)
5.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
5.6.1 Volcanic Landforms
5.6.2 Living with Volcanoes
Chapter 6. Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret Earth History
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution
6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment
6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment Composition
6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity
6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks
6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks
6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks
6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures
6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting
6.5.2 Grain Shape
6.5.3 Sediment “Maturity”
6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks
6.6 Sedimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient Environments
6.6.1 Beds and Stratification
6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures
6.7 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life
6.8 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy
Chapter 7. Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What Changes during Metamorphism?
7.2.1 Changes in Texture
7.2.2 Changes in Mineralogy
7.2.3 Changes in Composition
7.3 Agents of Metamorphism
7.3.1 The Effect of Heat
7.3.2 The Effect of Pressure
7.3.3 The Effects of Stress
7.3.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids
7.4 Studying Metamorphic Rocks
7.4.1 How to Determine if a Rock Is Metamorphic
7.4.2 Metamorphic Rock Classification and Identification
7.4.3 Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Rocks
7.5 What Can We Learn from a Metamorphic Rock?
7.5.1 Identifying the Protolith
7.5.2 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism and Geologic Setting
7.5.3 Estimating the Grade of Metamorphism
Chapter 8. Studying the Earth’s Landforms: Maps and Other Tools
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Ways to Portray the Earth’s Surface
8.2.1 Map Projections
8.3 Map Elements
8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location
8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction
8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale
8.4 Vertical Exaggeration: A Matter of Perspective
Chapter 9. Working with Topographic Maps
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Contour Lines
9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps
9.3 Reading Topographic Maps
9.3.1 Contour Lines and Slope
9.3.2 Contour Lines and Elevation
9.3.3 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the Water Flowing?
9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Contour Lines on Topographic Maps
9.4 Applications of Contour Lines on Topographic Maps
9.5 Topographic Profiles
9.5.1 Drawing a Topographic Profile
9.5.2 Choosing the Vertical Scale
Appendix 9.1: Topographic Map Symbols
Chapter 10. Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and Cross Sections
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Beginning with the Basics: Contacts and Attitude
10.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations
10.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers: Strike and Dip
10.3 Working with Block Diagrams
10.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Strata
10.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds
10.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults
10.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities
10.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions
10.4 Geologic Maps
10.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols
10.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections
10.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns
10.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines
10.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes
10.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps
Chapter 11. Earthquakes and Seismology
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves
11.3 Locating Earthquakes
11.4 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake
11.5 Predicting Earthquake Hazards: Liquefaction
11.6 Tsunami!
Appendix 11.1: Seismic Analysis Worksheets
Chapter 12. Interpreting Geologic History: What Happened, and When Did It Happen?
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physical Criteria for Determining Relative Age
12.2.1 The Principles of Original Horizontality and Superposition
12.2.2 The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
12.2.3 The Principle of Inclusions
12.2.4 Sedimentary Structures
12.2.5 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the Geologic Record
12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating
12.3.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession
12.3.2 The Geologic Time Scale
12.3.3 Fossil Age Ranges
12.4 Determining Numerical Ages of Rocks
12.5 Correlation: Fitting Pieces of the Puzzle Together
Chapter 13. Landscapes Formed by Streams
13.1 Introduction
13.2 How Do Streams Work?
13.3 Stream Valley Types and Features
13.4 Changes in Streams over Time
13.5 Stream Networks
13.5.1 Drainage Basins
13.5.2 Drainage Patterns
13.6 Changes in Stream-Created Landscapes over Time
13.7 When Streams Don’t Seem to Follow the Rules
13.8 When There’s Too Much Water: Floods
13.9 Streams, Society, and the Environment
Chapter 14. Groundwater as a Landscape Former and Resource
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Aquifers and Aquitards
14.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater
14.4 The Water Table
14.5 Groundwater Resources and Problems
Chapter 15. Glacial Landscapes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 How Glaciers Do Their Work
15.2.1 Types of Glaciers
15.2.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms
15.3 Landscapes Produced by Continental Glaciation
15.3.1 Erosional Landscapes
15.3.2 Depositional Landscapes
15.4 Landscapes Produced by Mountain Glaciation
15.5 Glaciers and Climate Change
Appendix 15.1: Glossary of Glacial Landforms
Chapter 16. Processes and Landforms in Arid Environments
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Processes in Arid Regions
16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes
16.4 Wind and Sand Dunes
16.5 Desertification
Chapter 17. Shoreline Landscapes
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Factors Controlling Shoreline Formation and Evolution
17.2.1 Shoreline Materials
17.2.2 Weather and Climate
17.2.3 Tidal Range
17.2.4 Tectonic Activity
17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines
17.3 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition
17.3.1 How Waves Form
17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Deposition
17.3.3 Longshore Drift
17.3.4 Erosional Features
17.3.5 Depositional Features
17.4 Human Interaction with Shoreline Processes
17.4.1 Seawalls
17.4.2 Beach Nourishment
17.4.3 Jetties
17.4.4 Unintended Consequences of Human Shoreline Management Efforts
17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous
17.5.1 Sea-Level Change
17.5.2 Coastal Storms
17.5.3 Tsunamis
Chapter 18. Looking to the Future: How Will Humans Be Affected by Changes in the Earth System?
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Changes in the Earth System
18.2.1 The Nature of Change: Cyclical versus Unidirectional
18.2.2 Changes in the Geosphere
18.2.3 Changes in the Atmosphere
18.2.4 Changes in the Cryosphere and Hydrosphere
18.2.5 Changes in the Biosphere
18.3 Humans as Agents of Environmental Change and Extinctions
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