Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System 3rd Edition

Front Cover
Inside Front Cover
Half title page
Evolve page
Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System
Copyright Page
Dedication
About the Author
About the Illustrations
About the Contributors
Reviewers and Content Consultants
Preface
Background
Approach
Organization
Distinctive Features
Ancillary Educational Materials
For the Instructor
For the Student and Instructor
Acknowledgments
Table Of Contents
I Essential Topics of Kinesiology
Section I Essential Topics of Kinesiology
Additional Clinical Connections
Study Questions
1 Getting Started
Chapter at a Glance
What Is Kinesiology?
Overall Plan of This Textbook
Kinematics
Translation Compared with Rotation
Osteokinematics
Planes of Motion
Axis of Rotation
Degrees of Freedom
Osteokinematics: A Matter of Perspective
Arthrokinematics
Typical Joint Morphology
Fundamental Movements Between Joint Surfaces
Roll-and-Slide Movements
Spin
Motions That Combine Roll-and-Slide and Spin Arthrokinematics
Predicting an Arthrokinematic Pattern Based on Joint Morphology
Close-Packed and Loose-Packed Positions at A Joint
Kinetics
Musculoskeletal Forces
Impact of Forces on the Musculoskeletal System: Introductory Concepts and Terminology
Internal and External Forces
Musculoskeletal Torques
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Types of Muscle Activation
Muscle Action at A Joint
Terminology Related to the Actions of Muscles
Musculoskeletal Levers
Three Classes of Levers
First-Class Lever
Second-Class Lever
Third-Class Lever
Mechanical Advantage
Dictating the Trade-Off between Force and Distance
Synopsis
Glossary
Study Questions
References
2 Basic Structure and Function of Human Joints
Chapter at a Glance
Classification of Joints Based on Movement Potential
Synarthroses
Diarthroses: Synovial Joints
Classification of Synovial Joints Based on Mechanical Analogy
Simplifying the Classification of Synovial Joints: Ovoid and Saddle Joints
Axis of Rotation
Histologic Organization of Periarticular Connective Tissues
Fibrous Proteins
Ground Substance
Cells
Types of Periarticular Connective Tissues
Dense Connective Tissue
Articular Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Bone
Some Effects of Immobilization on the Strength of Periarticular Connective Tissue and Bone
Brief Overview of Joint Pathology
A Brief Look at Some Effects of Advanced Aging on Periarticular Connective Tissue and Bone
Synopsis
Study Questions
References
3 Muscle
Chapter at a Glance
Muscle as A Skeletal Stabilizer: Generating an Appropriate Amount of Force at A Given Length
Introduction to the Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle
Muscle Morphology
Muscle Architecture
Muscle and Tendon: Generation of Force
Passive Length-Tension Curve
Active Length-Tension Curve
Summation of Active Force and Passive Tension: the Total Length-Tension Curve
Isometric Muscle Force: Development of the Internal Torque–Joint Angle Curve
Muscle as A Skeletal Mover: Force Modulation
Modulating Force through Concentric or Eccentric Activation: Introduction to the Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscle
Force-Velocity Curve
Power and Work: Additional Concepts Related to the Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscle
Activating Muscle via the Nervous System
Recruitment
Rate Coding
Introduction to Electromyography
Recording of Electromyography
Analysis and Normalization of Electromyography
Electromyographic Amplitude During Muscular Activation
Causes of Muscle Fatigue in Healthy Persons
Changes in Muscle With Strength Training, Reduced Use, and Advanced Age
Changes in Muscle with Strength Training
Changes in Muscle with Reduced Use
Changes in Muscle with Advanced Age
Synopsis
Study Questions
References
4 Biomechanical Principles
Chapter at a Glance
Newton’s Laws: Underlying Principles of Biomechanics
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s First Law: Law of Inertia
Newton’s Second Law: Law of Acceleration
Force (Torque)-Acceleration Relationship
Impulse-Momentum Relationship
Work-Energy Relationship
Newton’s Third Law: Law of Action-Reaction
Introduction to Movement Analysis: Setting the Stage for Analysis
Anthropometry
Free Body Diagram
Steps for Constructing the Free Body Diagram
Spatial Reference Frames
Forces and Torques
Graphic and Mathematic Methods of Force Analysis
Composition of Forces
Resolution of Forces
Contrasting Internal Versus External Forces and Torques
Influence of Changing the Angle of the Joint
Comparing Two Methods for Determining Torque Around A Joint
Internal Torque
External Torque
Manually Applying External Torques During Exercise and Strength Testing
Introduction to Biomechanics: Finding the Solutions
Static Analysis
Guidelines for Problem Solving
Problem 1
Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components
Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
Solving for Joint Reaction Force
Clinical Questions Related to Problem 1
Problem 2
Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components
Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
Solving for Joint Reaction Force
Clinical Questions Related to Problem 2
Problem 3
Resolving Known Forces Into X and Y Components
Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
Solving for Joint Reaction Force
Clinical Questions Related to Problem 3
Dynamic Analysis
Kinematic Measurement Systems
Electrogoniometer
Accelerometer
Imaging Techniques
Electromagnetic Tracking Devices
Kinetic Measurement Systems
Mechanical Devices
Transducers
Electromechanical Devices
Summary
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Study Questions
Clinical Questions
Clinical Questions
Appendix I Trigonometry Review and Anthropometric Data
Part A: Basic Review of Right-Angle Trigonometry
Part B: Anthropometric Data
II Upper Extremity
Section II Upper Extremity
Web-Based Educational Material
Additional Clinical Connections
Study Questions
ALL Videos
5 Shoulder Complex
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Sternum
Clavicle
Scapula
Proximal-to-Mid Humerus
Arthrology
Sternoclavicular Joint
General Features
Periarticular Connective Tissue
Kinematics
Elevation and Depression
Protraction and Retraction
Axial (Longitudinal) Rotation of the Clavicle
Acromioclavicular Joint
General Features
Periarticular Connective Tissue
Kinematics
Upward and Downward Rotation
Horizontal and Sagittal Plane “Rotational Adjustment Motions” at the Acromioclavicular Joint
Scapulothoracic Joint
Kinematics
Elevation and Depression
Protraction and Retraction
Upward and Downward Rotation
Glenohumeral Joint
General Features
Periarticular Connective Tissue and Other Supporting Structures
Capsular Ligaments
Rotator Cuff Muscles and Long Head of the Biceps Brachii
Glenoid Labrum
Scapulothoracic Posture and Its Effect on Static Stability
Coracoacromial Arch and Associated Bursa
Kinematics
Abduction and Adduction
Clinical Relevance of Roll-and-Slide Arthrokinematics at the Glenohumeral Joint
Flexion and Extension
Internal and External Rotation
Overall Kinematics of Shoulder Abduction: Establishing Six Kinematic Principles of the Shoulder Complex
Scapulohumeral Rhythm
Sternoclavicular and Acromioclavicular Joints During Full Abduction
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of the Muscles and Joints of the Shoulder Complex
Introduction to the Brachial Plexus
Innervation of Muscle
Sensory Innervation to the Joints
Action of the Shoulder Muscles
Muscles of the Scapulothoracic Joint
Elevators
Depressors
Protractors
Retractors
Upward and Downward Rotators
Muscles That Elevate the Arm
Muscles That Elevate the Arm at the Glenohumeral Joint
Upward Rotators at the Scapulothoracic Joint
Trapezius and Serratus Anterior Interaction during Upward Rotation of the Scapula
Paralysis of the Upward Rotators of the Scapulothoracic Joint
Trapezius Muscle Weakness
Serratus Anterior Muscle Weakness
Function of the Rotator Cuff Muscles During Elevation of the Arm
Regulators of Dynamic Stability at the Glenohumeral Joint
Active Controllers of the Arthrokinematics at the Glenohumeral Joint
Muscles That Adduct and Extend the Shoulder
Muscles That Internally and Externally Rotate the Shoulder
Internal Rotator Muscles
External Rotator Muscles
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Study Questions
Additional Video Educational Content
Clinical Kinesiology Applied to Persons with Quadriplegia (Tetraplegia)
6 Elbow and Forearm
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Mid-to-Distal Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Arthrology
Joints of the Elbow
General Features of the Humero-Ulnar and Humeroradial Joints
Normal “Valgus Angle” of the Elbow
Periarticular Connective Tissue
Kinematics
Functional Considerations of Flexion and Extension
Arthrokinematics at the Humero-Ulnar Joint
Arthrokinematics at the Humeroradial Joint
Structure and Function of the Interosseous Membrane
Joints of the Forearm
General Features of the Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints
Joint Structure and Periarticular Connective Tissue
Proximal Radio-Ulnar Joint
Distal Radio-Ulnar Joint
Introduction to the Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex
Kinematics
Functional Considerations of Pronation and Supination
Arthrokinematics at the Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints
Supination
Pronation
The Near-Isometric Behavior of the Interosseous Membrane During Pronation and Supination
Humeroradial Joint: A “Shared” Joint between the Elbow and the Forearm
Pronation and Supination with the Radius and Hand Held Fixed
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Neuroanatomy Overview: Paths of the Musculocutaneous, Radial, Median, and Ulnar Nerves throughout the Elbow, Forearm, Wrist, and Hand
Innervation of Muscles and Joints of the Elbow and Forearm
Innervation of Muscle
Sensory Innervation of Joints
Humero-Ulnar and Humeroradial Joints
Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints
Function of the Elbow Muscles
Elbow Flexors
Individual Muscle Action of the Elbow Flexors
Torque Generated by the Elbow Flexor Muscles
Polyarticular Biceps Brachii: A Physiologic Advantage of Combining Elbow Flexion with Shoulder Extension
Elbow Extensors
Muscular Components
Electromyographic Analysis of Elbow Extension
Torque Generation by the Elbow Extensors
Function of the Supinator and Pronator Muscles
Supinator Muscles
Supinator versus Biceps Brachii
Pronator Muscles
Pronator Teres versus Pronator Quadratus
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Clinical Kinesiology Applied to Persons With Quadriplegia (Tetraplegia)
Study Questions
7 Wrist
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Distal Forearm
Carpal Bones
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Capitate
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Hamate
Carpal Tunnel
Arthrology
Joint Structure and Ligaments of the Wrist
Joint Structure
Radiocarpal Joint
Midcarpal Joint
Intercarpal Joints
Wrist Ligaments
Extrinsic Ligaments
Intrinsic Ligaments
Kinematics of Wrist Motion
Osteokinematics
Arthrokinematics
Wrist Extension and Flexion
Dynamic Interaction within the Joints of the Central Column of the Wrist
Ulnar and Radial Deviation of the Wrist
Dynamic Interaction Between the Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Joints
Additional Arthrokinematics Involving the Proximal Row of Carpal Bones
Carpal Instability
Rotational Collapse of the Wrist
Ulnar Translocation of the Carpus
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of the Wrist Muscles and Joints
Innervation of Muscle
Sensory Innervation of the Joints
Function of the Muscles at the Wrist
Function of the Wrist Extensors
Muscular Anatomy
Biomechanical Assessment of Wrist Muscles’ Action and Torque Potential
Wrist Extensor Activity While Making a Fist
Function of the Wrist Flexors
Muscular Anatomy
Functional Considerations
Function of the Radial and Ulnar Deviators
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Clinical Kinesiology Applied to Persons With Quadriplegia (Tetraplegia)
Study Questions
8 Hand
Chapter at a Glance
Terminology
Osteology
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Arches of the Hand
Arthrology
Carpometacarpal Joints
Second Through Fifth Carpometacarpal Joints
General Features and Ligamentous Support
Joint Structure and Kinematics
Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb
Capsule and Ligaments of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
Saddle Joint Structure
Kinematics
Abduction and Adduction at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
Flexion and Extension at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
Opposition of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
Metacarpophalangeal Joints
Fingers
General Features and Ligaments
Kinematics
Osteokinematics
Arthrokinematics
Thumb
General Features and Ligaments
Interphalangeal Joints
Fingers
General Features and Ligaments
Kinematics
Thumb
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of Muscles, Skin, and Joints of the Hand
Muscle and Skin Innervation
Sensory Innervation to the Joints
Muscular Function of the Hand
Extrinsic Flexors of the Digits
Anatomy and Joint Action of the Extrinsic Flexors of the Digits
Anatomy and Function of the Flexor Pulleys
Role of Proximal Stabilizer Muscles during Active Finger Flexion
Passive Finger Flexion via “Tenodesis Action” of the Extrinsic Digital Flexors
Extrinsic Extensors of the Fingers
Muscular Anatomy
Extensor Mechanism of the Fingers
Action of the Extrinsic Finger Extensors
Extrinsic Extensors of the Thumb
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand
Muscles of the Thenar Eminence
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Implications of Median Nerve Injury
Muscles of the Hypothenar Eminence
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Adductor Pollicis Muscle
Lumbricals and Interosseus Muscles
Interaction of the Extrinsic and Intrinsic Muscles of the Fingers
Opening the Hand: Finger Extension
Primary Muscular Activity
Function of Wrist Flexors during Finger Extension
Closing the Hand: Finger Flexion
Primary Muscle Action
Function of Wrist Extensors during Finger Flexion
Hand as an Effector Organ
Joint Deformities Typically Caused by Rheumatoid Arthritis
Zigzag Deformity of the Thumb
Destruction of the Metacarpophalangeal Joints of the Finger
Palmar Dislocation of the Metacarpophalangeal Joint
Ulnar Drift
Zigzag Deformities of the Fingers
Swan-Neck Deformity
Boutonnière Deformity
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Clinical Kinesiology Applied to Persons With Quadriplegia (Tetraplegia)
Study Questions
Appendix II Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervations, Muscle Cross-Sectional Areas, and Dermatomes of the Upper Extremity
Part A: Paths of the Peripheral Nerves throughout the Elbow, Wrist, and Hand
Part B: Spinal Nerve Root Innervation of the Muscles of the Upper Extremity
Part C: Five Major Nerves and Their Motor Innervation Pattern throughout the Upper Extremity
Part D: Key Muscles for Testing the Function of Spinal Nerve Roots (C5 to T1)
Part E: Dermatomes of the Upper Extremity
Part F: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Upper Extremity
Shoulder Musculature
Coracobrachialis
Deltoid
Infraspinatus
Latissimus Dorsi
Levator Scapula
Pectoralis Major
Pectoralis Minor
Rhomboid Major and Minor
Serratus Anterior
Subclavius
Subscapularis
Supraspinatus
Teres Major
Teres Minor
Trapezius
Elbow and Forearm Musculature
Anconeus
Biceps Brachii
Brachialis
Brachioradialis
Pronator Teres
Pronator Quadratus
Supinator
Triceps Brachii
Wrist Musculature
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
Flexor Carpi Radialis
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
Palmaris Longus
Extrinsic Hand Musculature
Abductor Pollicis Longus
Extensor Digitorum
Extensor Digiti Minimi
Extensor Indicis
Extensor Pollicis Brevis
Extensor Pollicis Longus
Flexor Digitorum Profundus
Flexor Digitorum Superficialis
Flexor Pollicis Longus
Intrinsic Hand Musculature
Abductor Digiti Minimi
Abductor Pollicis Brevis
Adductor Pollicis
Dorsal Interossei
Flexor Digiti Minimi
Flexor Pollicis Brevis
Lumbricals
Opponens Digiti Minimi
Opponens Pollicis
Palmaris Brevis
Palmar Interossei
Part G: Physiologic Cross-Sectional Areas of Selected Muscles of the Upper Extremity
III Axial Skeleton
Section III Axial Skeleton
Section III
Web-Based Educational Material
Additional Clinical Connections
Study Questions
All Videos
9 Axial Skeleton
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Components within the Axial Skeleton
Cranium
Temporal and Occipital Bones
Vertebrae: Building Blocks of the Spine
Ribs
Sternum
Vertebral Column as a Whole
Normal Curvatures Within the Vertebral Column
Line of Gravity Passing Through the Body
Ligamentous Support of the Vertebral Column
Regional Osteologic Features of the Vertebral Column
Cervical Region
Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3 to C6)
Atypical Cervical Vertebrae (C1, C2, and C7)
Atlas (C1)
Axis (C2)
“Vertebra Prominens” (C7)
Thoracic Region
Typical Thoracic Vertebrae (T2 to T9)
Atypical Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 and T10 to T12)
Lumbar Region
Sacrum
Coccyx
Arthrology
Typical Intervertebral Junction
Terminology Describing Movement
Structure and Function of the Apophyseal Joints
Structure and Function of the Interbody Joints
Structural Considerations of the Lumbar Intervertebral Discs
Vertebral Endplates
Intervertebral Disc as a Hydrostatic Pressure Distributor
In Vivo Pressure Measurements from the Nucleus Pulposus
Diurnal Fluctuations in the Water Content within the Intervertebral Discs
Regional Anatomy and Kinematics Across the Vertebral Column
Introduction to Spinal Coupling
Craniocervical Region
Anatomy of Joints
Atlanto-Occipital Joint
Atlanto-Axial Joint Complex
Tectorial Membrane and the Alar Ligaments
Intracervical Apophyseal Joints (C2 to C7)
Sagittal Plane Kinematics
Osteokinematics of Flexion and Extension
Arthrokinematics of Flexion and Extension
Atlanto-Occipital Joint
Atlanto-Axial Joint Complex
Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
Osteokinematics of Protraction and Retraction
Horizontal Plane Kinematics
Osteokinematics of Axial Rotation
Arthrokinematics of Axial Rotation
Atlanto-Axial Joint Complex
Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
Frontal Plane Kinematics
Osteokinematics of Lateral Flexion
Arthrokinematics of Lateral Flexion
Atlanto-Occipital Joint
Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
Spinal Coupling Between Lateral Flexion and Axial Rotation
Thoracic Region
Anatomy of Thoracic Articular Structures
Kinematics
Kinematics of Flexion and Extension
Kinematics of Axial Rotation
Kinematics of Lateral Flexion
Lumbar Region
Anatomy of the Articular Structures
L1–L4 Region
L5–S1 Junction
Kinematics
Sagittal Plane Kinematics: Flexion and Extension
Flexion of the Lumbar Region
Extension of the Lumbar Region
Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Flexion and Extension
Variations of Lumbopelvic Rhythms during Trunk Flexion from a Standing Position: A Kinematic Analysis.
Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Extension from a Forward Bent Position: A Muscular Analysis.
Effect of Pelvic Tilting on the Kinematics of the Lumbar Spine
Kinesiologic Correlations between Anterior Pelvic Tilt and Increased Lumbar Lordosis.
Kinesiologic Correlations between Posterior Pelvic Tilt and Decreased Lumbar Lordosis.
Horizontal Plane Kinematics: Axial Rotation
Frontal Plane Kinematics: Lateral Flexion
Sitting Posture and Its Effect on Alignment within the Lumbar and Craniocervical Regions
Summary of the Kinematics Within the Vertebral Column
Sacroiliac Joints
Anatomic Considerations
Joint Structure
Ligaments
Innervation
Thoracolumbar Fascia
Kinematics
Functional Considerations
Stress Relief
Stability during Load Transfer: Mechanics of Generating a Nutation Torque at the Sacroiliac Joints
Stabilizing Effect of Gravity
Stabilizing Effect of Ligaments and Muscles
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
10 Axial Skeleton
Chapter at a Glance
Innervation of the Muscles and Joints Within the Trunk and Craniocervical Regions
Ventral Ramus Innervation
Plexus
Individual Named Nerves
Intercostal Nerves (T1 to T12)
Recurrent Meningeal Nerves
Dorsal Ramus Innervation
Trunk and Craniocervical Regions
Production of Internal Torque
Special Considerations for the Study of Muscle Actions within the Axial Skeleton
Muscles of the Trunk: Anatomy and Their Individual Actions
Set 1: Muscles of the Posterior Trunk (“Back” Muscles)
Muscles in the Superficial and Intermediate Layers of the Back
Muscles in the Deep Layer of the Back
Erector Spinae Group
Spinalis Muscles.
Longissimus Muscles.
Iliocostalis Muscles.
Summary.
Transversospinal Muscles
Semispinalis Muscles.
Multifidi.
Rotatores.
Summary.
Short Segmental Group of Muscles
Summary.
Set 2: Muscles of the Anterior-Lateral Trunk (“Abdominal” Muscles)
Formation of the Rectus Sheaths and Linea Alba
Anatomy of the Abdominal Muscles
Actions of the Abdominal Muscles
Comparing Trunk Flexor versus Trunk Extensor Peak Torque
Set 3: Additional Muscles (Iliopsoas and Quadratus Lumborum)
Iliopsoas
Function of the Psoas Major at the Lumbosacral Region
Quadratus Lumborum
Muscles of the Trunk: Functional Interactions among Muscles
Muscular-Based Stability of the Trunk
Intrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk
Extrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk
Performing a Standard Sit-Up Movement
Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Anatomy and Their Individual Actions
Set 1: Muscles of the Anterior-Lateral Craniocervical Region
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
Longus Colli and Longus Capitis
Rectus Capitis Anterior and Rectus Capitis Lateralis
Set 2: Muscles of the Posterior Craniocervical Region
Splenius Cervicis and Capitis
Suboccipital Muscles
Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Functional Interactions among Muscles That Cross the Craniocervical Region
Stabilizing the Craniocervical Region
Producing Extensive and Well-Coordinated Movements of the Head and Neck: Optimizing the Placement of the Eyes, Ears, and Nose
Selected Biomechanical Issues of Lifting: A Focus on Reducing Back Injury
Muscular Mechanics Associated with Extension of the Low Back during Lifting
Estimating the Magnitude of Force Imposed on the Low Back During Lifting
Ways to Reduce the Force Demands on the Back Muscles During Lifting
Role of Increasing Intra-Abdominal Pressure During Lifting
Additional Sources of Extension Torque Used for Lifting
Passive Tension Generation from Stretching the Posterior Ligamentous System
Muscular-Generated Tension Transferred through the Thoracolumbar Fascia
Summary of Factors That Likely Contribute to Safe Lifting
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
11 Kinesiology of Mastication and Ventilation
Chapter at a Glance
Part 1: Mastication
Osteology and Teeth
Regional Surface Anatomy
Individual Bones
Mandible
Maxilla
Temporal Bone
Zygomatic Bone
Sphenoid Bone
Hyoid Bone
Teeth
Arthrology of the Temporomandibular Joint
Osseous Structure
Mandibular Condyle
Mandibular Fossa
Articular Disc
Capsular and Ligamentous Structures
Fibrous Capsule
Lateral Ligament
Accessory Ligaments
Osteokinematics
Protrusion and Retrusion
Lateral Excursion
Depression and Elevation
Arthrokinematics
Protrusion and Retrusion
Lateral Excursion
Depression and Elevation
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of the Muscles and Joints
Muscular Anatomy and Function
Primary Muscles of Mastication
Masseter
Temporalis
Medial Pterygoid
Lateral Pterygoid
Secondary Muscles of Mastication
Summary of Individual Muscle Action
Muscular Control of Opening and Closing of the Mouth
Opening the Mouth
Closing the Mouth
Temporomandibular Disorders
Synopsis
Part 2: Ventilation
Arthrology
Thorax
Articulations within the Thorax
Manubriosternal Joint
Sternocostal Joints
Interchondral Joints
Costovertebral Joints
Thoracic Intervertebral Joints
Changes in Intrathoracic Volume during Ventilation
Vertical Changes
Anterior-Posterior and Medial-Lateral Changes
Muscular Actions During Ventilation
Muscles of Quiet Inspiration
Diaphragm Muscle
Scalene Muscles
Intercostales Muscles
Anatomy
Function of the Intercostales Externi and Interni Muscles
Muscles of Forced Inspiration
Muscles of Forced Expiration
Abdominal Muscles
Transversus Thoracis and Intercostales Interni
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
Part 1: Mastication
Part 2: Ventilation
Appendix III Reference Materials for the Cauda Equina, and Attachments, Innervations, and Selected Moment Arms of Muscles of the Axial Skeleton
Part A: Formation of the Cauda Equina
Part B: Thoracic Dermatomes of the Trunk
Part C: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Axial Skeleton
Muscles of the Trunk
Set 1: Muscles of the Posterior Trunk
Erector Spinae Group (Iliocostalis, Longissimus, and Spinalis Muscles)
Iliocostalis Lumborum
Iliocostalis Thoracis
Iliocostalis Cervicis
Longissimus Thoracis
Longissimus Cervicis
Longissimus Capitis
Spinalis Thoracis
Spinalis Cervicis
Spinalis Capitis (Blends with Semispinalis Capitis)
Transversospinal Group (Multifidi, Rotatores, and Semispinalis Muscles)
Multifidi
Rotatores: Longus and Brevis
Semispinalis Thoracis
Semispinalis Cervicis
Semispinalis Capitis
Short Segmental Group (Interspinalis and Intertransversarius Muscles)
Interspinalis Muscles
Intertransversarius Muscles
Set 2: Muscles of the Anterior-Lateral Trunk: “Abdominal” Muscles
Obliquus Externus Abdominis
Obliquus Internus Abdominis
Rectus Abdominis
Transversus Abdominis
Muscles of the Craniocervical Region
Set 1: Muscles of the Anterior-Lateral Craniocervical Region
Longus Capitis
Longus Colli
Superior Oblique Portion
Vertical Portion
Inferior Oblique Portion
Rectus Capitis Anterior
Rectus Capitis Lateralis
Scalenes
Scalenus Anterior
Scalenus Medius
Scalenus Posterior
Sternocleidomastoid
Set 2: Muscles of the Posterior Craniocervical Region
Splenius Capitis
Splenius Cervicis
Suboccipital Muscles
Obliquus Capitis Inferior
Obliquus Capitis Superior
Rectus Capitis Posterior Major
Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor
Miscellaneous: Quadratus Lumborum
Quadratus Lumborum
Primary Muscles of Mastication
Masseter: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads
Temporalis
Medial Pterygoid: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads
Lateral Pterygoid (Superior Head)
Lateral Pterygoid (Inferior Head)
Suprahyoid Muscles
Digastric: Posterior Belly
Digastric: Anterior Belly
Geniohyoid
Mylohyoid
Stylohyoid
Infrahyoid Muscles
Omohyoid
Sternohyoid
Sternothyroid
Thyrohyoid
Muscles Related Primarily to Ventilation
Diaphragm
Inferior Attachments
Superior Attachment
Intercostales Externi
Intercostales Interni
Intercostales Intimi
Levatores Costarum (Longus and Brevis)
Serratus Posterior Inferior
Serratus Posterior Superior
Transversus Thoracis
Part D: Moment Arm Data for Selected Craniocervical Muscles
IV Lower Extremity
Section IV Lower Extremity
Web-Based Educational Material
Additional Clinical Connections
Study Questions
All Videos
12 Hip
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Innominate
Ilium
Pubis
Ischium
Acetabulum
Femur
Shape of the Proximal Femur
Angle of Inclination
Femoral Torsion
Internal Structure of the Proximal Femur
Compact and Cancellous Bone
Arthrology
Functional Anatomy of the Hip Joint
Femoral Head
Acetabulum
Acetabular Labrum
Acetabular Alignment
Center-Edge Angle
Acetabular Anteversion Angle
Capsule and Ligaments of the Hip
Close-Packed Position of the Hip
Osteokinematics
Femoral-on-Pelvic Osteokinematics
Rotation of the Femur in the Sagittal Plane
Rotation of the Femur in the Frontal Plane
Rotation of the Femur in the Horizontal Plane
Pelvic-on-Femoral Osteokinematics
Lumbopelvic Rhythm
Pelvic Rotation in the Sagittal Plane: Anterior and Posterior Pelvic Tilting
Pelvic Rotation in the Frontal Plane
Pelvic Rotation in the Horizontal Plane
Arthrokinematics
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of the Muscles and Joint
Innervation of Muscles
Lumbar Plexus
Sacral Plexus
Sensory Innervation of the Hip
Muscular Function at the Hip
Hip Flexor Muscles
Anatomy and Individual Actions
The Iliopsoas and Psoas Minor
The Remaining Primary Hip Flexors
Overall Function
Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Flexion: Anterior Pelvic Tilt
Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Flexion
Hip Adductor Muscles
Functional Anatomy
Overall Function
Frontal Plane Function
Sagittal Plane Function
Hip Internal Rotator Muscles
Function
Active Internal Rotation Torque Increases with Hip Flexion
Biomechanics of the Adductor Muscles as Internal Rotators of the Hip
Hip Extensor Muscles
Anatomy and Individual Actions
Overall Function
Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Extension
Hip Extensors Performing a Posterior Pelvic Tilt.
Hip Extensors Controlling a Forward Lean of the Body.
Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Extension
Hip Abductor Muscles
Anatomy and Individual Actions
Hip Abductor Mechanism: Control of Frontal Plane Stability of the Pelvis during Walking
Hip Abductor Mechanism: Dominant Role in the Production of Compression Force at the Hip
Maximal Abduction Torque Varies According to Hip Joint Angle
Hip External Rotator Muscles
Functional Anatomy of the “Short External Rotators”
Overall Function
Maximal Torque Produced by the Hip Muscles
Example of Hip Pathology and Selected Therapeutic and Surgical Interventions
Osteoarthritis of the Hip
Selected Therapeutic and Surgical Interventions for a Painful, Degenerated, or Mechanically Unstable Hip
Using a Cane and Proper Methods for Carrying External Loads
Total Hip Arthroplasty
Biomechanical Consequences of Coxa Vara and Coxa Valga
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
13 Knee
Chapter at a Glance
Osteology
Distal Femur
Proximal Tibia and Fibula
Patella
Arthrology
General Anatomic and Alignment Considerations
Capsule and Reinforcing Ligaments
Synovial Membrane, Bursae, and Fat Pads
Tibiofemoral Joint
Menisci
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Common Mechanisms of Injury
Osteokinematics at the Tibiofemoral Joint
Flexion and Extension
Internal and External (Axial) Rotation
Arthrokinematics at the Tibiofemoral Joint
Extension of the Knee
“Screw-Home” Rotation of the Knee
Flexion of the Knee
Internal and External (Axial) Rotation of the Knee
Medial and Lateral Collateral Ligaments
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Anterior and Posterior Cruciate Ligaments
General Considerations
Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Anatomy and Function
Common Mechanisms of Injury
Posterior Cruciate Ligament
Anatomy and Function
Common Mechanisms of Injury
Patellofemoral Joint
Patellofemoral Joint Kinematics
Path and Area of Patellar Contact on the Femur
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of the Muscles
Sensory Innervation of the Knee Joint
Muscular Function at the Knee
Extensors of the Knee: Quadriceps Femoris Muscle
Anatomic Considerations
Functional Considerations
Quadriceps Action at the Knee: Understanding the Biomechanical Interactions between External and Internal Torques
External Torque Demands Placed against the Quadriceps: Contrasting “Tibial-on-Femoral” with “Femoral-on-Tibial” Methods of Knee Extension
Internal Torque–Joint Angle Relationship of the Quadriceps Muscle
Functional Role of the Patella.
Patellofemoral Joint Kinetics
Factors Affecting the Tracking of the Patella Across the Patellofemoral Joint
Role of the Quadriceps Muscle in Patellar Tracking
Factors That Naturally Oppose the Lateral Pull of the Quadriceps on the Patella
Local Factors
Global Factors
Summary
Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles
Functional Anatomy
Group Action of Flexor-Rotator Muscles
Control of Tibial-on-Femoral Osteokinematics
Control of Femoral-on-Tibial Osteokinematics
Maximal Torque Production of the Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles
Abnormal Alignment of the Knee
Frontal Plane
Genu Varum with Unicompartmental Osteoarthritis of the Knee
Excessive Genu Valgum
Sagittal Plane
Genu Recurvatum
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
14 Ankle and Foot
Chapter at A Glance
Osteology
Basic Terms and Concepts
Naming the Joints and Regions
Osteologic Similarities Between the Distal Leg and the Distal Arm
Individual Bones
Fibula
Distal Tibia
Tarsal Bones
Talus
Calcaneus
Navicular
Medial, Intermediate, and Lateral Cuneiforms
Cuboid
Rays of the Foot
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Arthrology
Terminology Used to Describe Movements
Structure and Function of the Joints Associated with the Ankle
Proximal Tibiofibular Joint
Distal Tibiofibular Joint
Talocrural Joint
Articular Structure
Ligaments
Osteokinematics
Arthrokinematics
Progressive Stabilization of the Talocrural Joint Throughout the Stance Phase of Gait
Structure and Function of the Joints Associated with the Foot
Subtalar Joint
Articular Structure
Ligaments
Kinematics
Range of Motion
Transverse Tarsal Joint (Talonavicular and Calcaneocuboid Joints)
Articular Structure and Ligamentous Support
Talonavicular Joint
Calcaneocuboid Joint
Kinematics
Axes of Rotation and Corresponding Movements
Arthrokinematics
Medial Longitudinal Arch of the Foot
Passive Support Mechanism of the Medial Longitudinal Arch
Pes Planus—“Abnormally Dropped” Medial Longitudinal Arch
Combined Action of the Subtalar and Transverse Tarsal Joints
Early to MidStance Phase of Gait: Kinematics of Pronation at the Subtalar Joint
Biomechanical Benefits of Controlling Pronation during the Stance Phase
Biomechanical Consequences of Excessive Pronation during the Stance Phase
Mid-to-Late Stance Phase of Gait: Kinematics of Supination at the Subtalar Joint
Distal Intertarsal Joints
Basic Structure and Function
Cuneonavicular Joint
Cuboideonavicular Joint
Intercuneiform and Cuneocuboid Joint Complex
Tarsometatarsal Joints
Anatomic Considerations
Kinematic Considerations
Intermetatarsal Joints
Structure and Function
Metatarsophalangeal Joints
Anatomic Considerations
Kinematic Considerations
Deformities or Trauma Involving the Metatarsophalangeal Joint of the Great Toe
Hallux Limitus
Hallux Valgus
Interphalangeal Joints
Action of the Joints Within the Forefoot During the Late Stance Phase of Gait
Muscle and Joint Interaction
Innervation of Muscles and Joints
Innervation of Muscles
Sensory Innervation of the Joints
Anatomy and Function of the Muscles
Extrinsic Muscles
Anterior Compartment Muscles
Anatomy
Joint Action
Lateral Compartment Muscles
Anatomy
Joint Action
Posterior Compartment Muscles
Anatomy
Superficial Group.
Deep Group.
Joint Action
Activation of the Plantar Flexor and Supinator Muscles during Walking.
Plantar Flexion Torque Generated for Propulsion.
Muscular Paralysis After Injury to the Fibular or Tibial Nerve
Injury to the Common Fibular Nerve and Its Branches
Injury to the Tibial Nerve and Its Branches
Intrinsic Muscles
Anatomic and Functional Considerations
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
15 Kinesiology of Walking
Chapter at a Glance
Historical Perspective of Gait Analysis
Spatial and Temporal Descriptors
Gait Cycle
Stance and Swing Phases
Subdivision of Stance and Swing Phases
Joint Kinematics
Sagittal Plane Kinematics
Pelvis
Hip
Knee
Ankle (Talocrural Joint)
First Tarsometatarsal Joint
First Metatarsophalangeal Joint
Frontal Plane Kinematics
Pelvis
Hip
Knee
Ankle (Talocrural Joint)
Foot and Subtalar Joint
Horizontal Plane Kinematics
Pelvis
Femur
Tibia
Hip
Knee
Ankle and Foot
Trunk and Upper Extremity Kinematics
Trunk
Shoulder
Elbow
Displacement and Control of the Body’s Center of Mass
Displacement of the Center of Mass
Kinetic and Potential Energy Considerations
Energy Expenditure
Energy-Saving Strategies of Walking
Vertical Displacement of the Center of Mass
Side-to-Side Displacement of the Center of Mass
Muscle Activity
Trunk
Erector Spinae
Rectus Abdominis
Hip
Hip Extensors
Hip Flexors
Hip Abductors
Hip Adductors and Hip Rotators
Knee
Knee Extensors
Knee Flexors
Ankle and Foot
Tibialis Anterior
Extensor Digitorum and Extensor Hallucis Longus
Ankle Plantar Flexors
Tibialis Posterior
Fibularis Muscles
Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot
Kinetics
Ground Reaction Forces
Vertical Forces
Anterior-Posterior Forces
Medial-Lateral Forces
Path of the Center of Pressure
Joint Torques and Powers
Hip
Knee
Ankle-and-Foot
Joint and Tendon Forces
Gait Dysfunctions
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Additional Video Educational Content
Study Questions
16 Kinesiology of Running
Chapter at a Glance
Spatial and Temporal Descriptors
Stride Cycle
Stance and Swing Phases
Subdivisions of Stance and Swing Phases
Joint Kinematics
Sagittal Plane Kinematics
Trunk
Pelvis
Hip
Knee
Ankle
First Metatarsophalangeal Joint
Frontal Plane Kinematics
Trunk
Pelvis
Hip
Knee
Subtalar Joint
Horizontal Plane Kinematics
Trunk
Pelvis
Hip
Knee
Upper Extremity
Shoulder
Elbow
Center of Mass
Displacement of the Center of Mass
Potential and Kinetic Energy Considerations
Energy Expenditure
Muscle Activity
Trunk
Erector Spinae
Rectus Abdominis
Hip
Hip Extensors
Hip Flexors
Hip Abductors
Hip Adductors and Rotators
Knee
Knee Extensors
Knee Flexors
Ankle-and-Foot
Tibialis Anterior
Gastrocnemius and Soleus
Tibialis Posterior
Fibularis Muscles
Kinetics
Ground Reaction Forces
Vertical Forces
Anterior-Posterior Forces
Medial-Lateral Forces
Path of the Center of Pressure
Joint Torques and Powers
Hip
Knee
Ankle-and-Foot
Factors Affecting Running Mechanics
Age
Sex
Speed
Surface Incline
Surface Stiffness
Synopsis
Additional Clinical Connections
References
Study Questions
Additional Video Educational Content
Appendix IV Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervations, Muscle Cross-Sectional Areas, and Dermatomes of the Lower Extremity
Part A: Spinal Nerve Root Innervations of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity
Part B: Key Muscles for Testing the Function of Spinal Nerve Roots (L2 to S3)
Part C: Dermatomes of the Lower Extremity
Part D: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity
Hip and Knee Musculature
Adductor Brevis
Adductor Longus
Adductor Magnus
Anterior Head
Posterior (Extensor) Head
Articularis Genu
Biceps Femoris
Long Head
Short Head
Gemellus Inferior
Gemellus Superior
Gluteus Maximus
Gluteus Medius
Gluteus Minimus
Gracilis
Iliopsoas
Psoas Major
Iliacus
Iliocapsularis
Obturator Externus
Obturator Internus
Pectineus
Piriformis
Popliteus
Psoas Minor
Quadratus Femoris
Rectus Femoris
Sartorius
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Tensor Fasciae Latae
Vastus Intermedius
Vastus Lateralis
Vastus Medialis
Ankle and Foot Musculature
Extensor Digitorum Longus
Extensor Hallucis Longus
Fibularis (Peroneus) Brevis
Fibularis (Peroneus) Longus
Fibularis (Peroneus) Tertius
Flexor Digitorum Longus
Flexor Hallucis Longus
Gastrocnemius
Plantaris
Soleus
Tibialis Anterior
Tibialis Posterior
Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot
Extensor Digitorum Brevis
Layer 1
Abductor Digiti Minimi
Abductor Hallucis
Flexor Digitorum Brevis
Layer 2
Lumbricals
Quadratus Plantae
Layer 3
Adductor Hallucis
Proximal Attachment
Flexor Digiti Minimi
Flexor Hallucis Brevis
Layer 4
Dorsal Interossei
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments*
Plantar Interossei
Proximal Attachments
Distal Attachments*
Part E: Physiologic Cross-Sectional Areas of Selected Muscles of the Lower Extremity
Part F: Attachments, Innervation, and Actions of the Muscles of the Pelvic Floor
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z