Kent and Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
ISBN 0387278427......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 9
I. OVERCAPACITIES AND THE SEARCH FOR REMEDIES......Page 11
THE RESTRUCTURING OF SECTORS IN DISTRESS......Page 12
THE NATIONALIZATION OF FRANCE'S CHEMICAL INDUSTRY......Page 16
RESTRUCTURING IN ITALY AND SPAIN......Page 18
THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CAUGHT OFF BALANCE......Page 19
COPING WITH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS......Page 22
Process Improvement......Page 23
Product Development......Page 24
THE CRAZE FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY......Page 26
THE FINE CHEMICALS APPROACH......Page 29
THE ATTRACTION OF SPECIALTY CHEMICALS......Page 30
THE PAINT INDUSTRY......Page 32
SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS......Page 33
FLAVORS, FRAGRANCES, AND BEAUTY PRODUCTS......Page 35
THE CHEMISTRY OF ADDITIVES......Page 38
Additives for Plastics......Page 39
Rubber Additives......Page 40
Additives for Lubricants......Page 41
Food Additives......Page 43
PHOTOCHEMICALS......Page 44
THE ALLIANCE OF CHEMICALS AND ELECTRONICS......Page 46
CATALYSTS......Page 47
RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT......Page 48
THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY UNDER PRESSURE FROM PUBLIC OPINION AND REGULATORY AUTHORITIES......Page 50
THE STATUS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY......Page 52
THE NEW LANDSCAPE......Page 53
THE TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY......Page 54
THE RESHUFFLING OF CHEMICAL ASSETS......Page 55
THE IMPOSSIBLE MARRIAGE OF PHARMACEUTICALS WITH AGROCHEMICALS......Page 56
THE FATE OF THE DYESTUFFS SECTOR......Page 57
CONSOLIDATION IN THE FIELD OF SPECIALTY CHEMICALS......Page 58
THE CASE OF FINE CHEMICALS......Page 63
THE FURTHER CONCENTRATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL GAS BUSINESS......Page 64
THE CHANGING TIES BETWEEN THE OIL AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES......Page 65
THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURS AND PRIVATE EaUITY FUNDS......Page 67
THE EVERLASTING PRESENCE OF CONTRARIANS......Page 68
THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE THIRD MILLENNIUM......Page 71
DEFINITION OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY......Page 73
THE PLACE OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN THE ECONOMY......Page 75
Commercial Development and Competition Factors......Page 80
Technological Orientation......Page 82
Historical......Page 83
Obsolescence and Dependence on Research......Page 84
THE FUTURE......Page 88
REFERENCES......Page 91
INTRODUCTION......Page 93
Review of Design Alternatives......Page 94
Storage of Hazardous Mate rials......Page 95
Use of Open Struct ures......Page 96
Need to Understand Reactive Chemicals Systems......Page 97
Losses from Dust Explosions......Page 98
Substitution of Less Hazardous Materials......Page 99
Redundant Instrumentation and Control Systems13......Page 100
Pressure Relief Systems......Page 101
Piping, Gaskets, and Valves......Page 102
Avoidance of Inherently Unsafe Equipment......Page 103
Pumps for Hazardous Service......Page 104
TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICAL PROCESS SAFETY......Page 105
PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS......Page 107
Some Tools for Evaluating Risks and Hazards......Page 108
Operating Discipline......Page 109
Introduction......Page 110
Fire26......Page 111
Flammability......Page 113
Inert Gases......Page 115
Mists and Foams......Page 117
Ignition......Page 118
Introduction......Page 122
Hazard Determinants......Page 123
Deve lopment of Pressure......Page 127
Detonations......Page 128
Explosion Violence......Page 129
BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOR EXPLOSIONS (BLEVES)......Page 131
Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions (UVCE)......Page 132
Physical Explosions......Page 134
MECHANICAL HEAT......Page 136
VACUUM49......Page 137
Process Safety Management......Page 138
Risk Management Plans (RMPs)......Page 144
THE PRINCIPAL REASON FOR MOST CHEMICAL PROCESS ACCIDENTS......Page 145
Flixborough, England 19742......Page 146
Bhopal, 1985 (C&EN Feb. 11, 1985;Technica 198954)......Page 147
Phillips Explosion, 198957......Page 148
REFERENCES......Page 152
ADDITIONAL READING REFERENCES......Page 154
Internet References and WEB pages......Page 155
Prevention, Prediction, and Preparation......Page 157
Need for Emergency Preparedness Programs......Page 158
PREVENTING AND PREDICTING EMERGENCIES: GETIING STARTED......Page 159
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND MITIGATION......Page 161
Review Methods......Page 162
Mitigating Hazards: Release Detection and Mitigation......Page 163
Personnel......Page 165
Plans......Page 166
Alarm Systems......Page 168
Facilities for Protectionand Communication......Page 169
DEVELOPING AN ERP......Page 170
EMO Structure......Page 171
Fire Brigade Training......Page 174
Employee Training......Page 175
Communications......Page 176
Local Emergency Plans......Page 178
Drills and Crit iques......Page 179
Laws......Page 180
Communications......Page 181
Reports......Page 182
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 184
Prevention and Planning......Page 185
Laws and Regulations......Page 186
Transportation......Page 187
INTRODUCTION......Page 188
SIMPLE TOOLS OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS......Page 189
TOOLS OF ROUTINE INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MONITORING AND CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT......Page 195
STATISTICAL METHODS AND INDUSTRIAL EXPERIMENTATION......Page 201
Identifying Major Contributors to Process Variation......Page 202
Discovering and Exploiting Patterns of Factor Influence on Responses......Page 205
Mixture Experiments......Page 211
Mechanistic Model Building......Page 216
MODERN BUSINESS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT AND THE DISCIPLINE OF STATISTICS......Page 217
REFERENCES......Page 218
OVERVIEW......Page 220
I. INTRODUCTION TO GREEN CHEMISTRY AND GREEN ENGINEERING......Page 221
TWELVE PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CHEMISTRY*......Page 224
PRINCIPLES OF GREEN ENGINEERING......Page 226
INTRODUCTION......Page 227
HIERARCHICAL RULES FOR WASTE MINIMIZATION......Page 228
Input-Output Structure......Page 229
Recycle Structure of the Flowsheet......Page 230
Separation Systems......Page 231
Energy Systems......Page 232
HEURISTICS FOR GREEN REACTOR DESIGN......Page 233
Distillation Columns......Page 234
Liquid-Solid Separations......Page 235
Modeling the Environment......Page 236
Translocation Processes in Air......Page 237
Translocation Processes in Water......Page 239
Translocation Processes Involving Biota......Page 240
TRANSFORMATION OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 241
Biotic Transformation Processes......Page 242
Abiotic Transformation Processes......Page 243
Traditional Chemical Properties......Page 246
Specialized Chemical Properties......Page 247
Sources of Chemical Property and Fate Data......Page 248
OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES......Page 249
Early Process Design Evaluations: "Tier I" Assessment......Page 253
Detailed Evaluation of Process Flowsheets: "Tier III" Assessment......Page 255
Hybrid Screening Evaluations: Combining "Tier I"-"Tier III"-Life Cycle Assessment......Page 259
CONCLUSIONS......Page 262
INTRODUCTION......Page 264
GOAL AND SCOPE OF LCA......Page 266
METHODS OF LIFE-CYCLE INVENTORY......Page 267
LCA IN PRACTICE......Page 269
REFERENCES......Page 274
2.3 Understanding and Prediction of the Environmental Fate of Chemicals......Page 279
2.4 Life-Cycle Assessment......Page 280
THE IMPORTANCE OF CATALYSIS......Page 281
THE STRUCTURE OF HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSTS......Page 283
Rate-Limiting Steps for a Supported Catalyst......Page 284
Selectivity......Page 288
Catalyst Preparation......Page 289
ACTIVE CATALYTIC SITES......Page 290
Kinetics......Page 291
Catalyst Deactivation......Page 294
CATALYST CHARACTERIZATION......Page 296
Petroleum Processing......Page 297
Oxidation Catalysts to Abate Unburned Hydrocarbon and CO Emissions......Page 301
Three-Way Catalytic Conversion......Page 302
Modern Catalytic Converter Systems......Page 304
Triglycerides......Page 305
General Reactions......Page 306
Hydrogen Generation for the Production of NH3......Page 307
Nitric Acid Synthesis......Page 309
Pure Hydrogen Generation with Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Purification......Page 310
Butyraldehyde......Page 311
Polypropylene......Page 312
REFERENCES......Page 313
SIGNIFICANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL DETERMINATIONS......Page 315
Samples and Sampling Strategies......Page 316
Determination of Total Elements or Total Related Substances.......Page 317
Determination of Specific Substances......Page 318
Remote Laboratory Analyses and Field Analyses......Page 320
Discrete Samples and Continuous Monitoring......Page 321
Research Methods......Page 322
Methods Published or Referenced in Government Agency Regulations......Page 323
Semivolatile Analytes......Page 324
Condensed-Phase Samples......Page 326
Vapor-Phase Samples......Page 328
PROCESSING OF SAMPLES BEFORE DETERMINATION OF THE ANALVTES......Page 330
Chromatographic Separation Techniques......Page 331
Chromatography Detectors......Page 333
Elemental Analysis......Page 334
GLOSSARY......Page 336
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING......Page 337
INTRODUCTION......Page 338
A NEW REALM OF MATTER......Page 339
SOLVATED METAL ATOM DISPERSION (SMAD) METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF NANOPARTICLES......Page 340
Gold Nanoparticles......Page 342
Silver Nanoparticles......Page 344
Semiconductor Nanoparticles......Page 345
Dielectrics (Insulator Nanoparticlesl......Page 346
MODIFIED AEROGEL PROCEDURE (MAP)......Page 347
Metal Oxide Nanoparticles......Page 348
MIXED METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLES......Page 349
Destructive Adsorption of Chemical Warfare ICW) Agents......Page 351
Medicine......Page 352
REFERENCES......Page 353
10 Synthetic Organic Chemicals......Page 355
Synthesis Gas......Page 356
Chloromethanes......Page 362
Hydrogen Cyanide......Page 363
Polyethylene......Page 364
Ethylene Oxide......Page 365
Chlorinated Ethanes and Ethylenes......Page 369
Ethylbenzene......Page 374
Acetaldehyde, Acetic Acid, Acetic Anhydride, Vinyl Acetate......Page 376
Other Ethylene Uses......Page 381
Polypropylene......Page 383
Propylene Oxide......Page 384
Isopropyl Alcohol......Page 385
Oxo Chemicals......Page 388
Acrylic Acid and Esters......Page 389
Glycerin......Page 390
CHEMICALS DERIVED FROM BUTANES AND BUTYLENES......Page 391
n-Butane Derivatives......Page 392
Isobutanes......Page 395
Butylenes......Page 397
Isobutylene......Page 398
Isoprene......Page 400
Chemicals from Benzene......Page 401
Derivatives of Toluene......Page 408
Chemicals from Xylene......Page 409
REFERENCES......Page 412
INTRODUCTION......Page 414
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY......Page 415
Research Strategies......Page 417
Pharmacokinetics and Toxicity......Page 418
Patents......Page 419
Clinical Trials......Page 420
Hypertension......Page 421
Congestive Heart Failure, Migraine, and Thrombolytic Agents......Page 422
Hyperlipidemia......Page 423
Diabetes......Page 424
Antisecretory......Page 425
Erectile Dysfunction......Page 426
Arthritis......Page 427
Anxiolytics......Page 428
Alzheimer's Disease......Page 429
Antibacterials......Page 430
Antivirals......Page 431
ANTINEOPLASTICS......Page 432
Glaucoma and Nausea......Page 433
SMALL MOLECULE HIGH THROUGHPUT SYNTHESIS......Page 434
Targeted Libraries......Page 435
Optimization Libraries......Page 436
CHEMICAL PROCESS R&D IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY......Page 437
Scheme-2......Page 439
REFERENCES......Page 440
TEXTILE BACKGROUND......Page 441
HISTORY......Page 443
FIBER CONSUMPTION......Page 444
Chemical Manufacture......Page 448
Wet Spinning......Page 451
Textile Operations......Page 454
Modified Viscose Rayon Fibers......Page 456
Environmentally Friendly High Wet Strength Rayon-Lyocell......Page 457
Manufacture of Cellulose Secondary Acetate......Page 458
Manufacture of Cellulose Triacetate......Page 460
Spinning Cellulose Acetate......Page 461
Manufacture......Page 464
Melt spinning......Page 466
Drawing......Page 467
Other Nylons, Modifications, and New Developments......Page 468
Historical......Page 469
Manufacture......Page 470
Drawing......Page 471
Heat Setting......Page 472
Textured Yarns......Page 473
Continuous Filament Yarn Process Variants......Page 474
Modifications and New Developments......Page 475
Polymer Manufacture......Page 476
Spinning......Page 478
Bicomponent or Conjugate Spun Fibers......Page 479
Vinyls......Page 480
Modacrylics......Page 481
ELASTOMERIC FIBERS......Page 482
Polypropylene......Page 483
High Molecular Weight......Page 487
Introduction......Page 490
Manufacture......Page 491
Meta-Aramid......Page 493
Historical......Page 494
Properties......Page 495
Glass......Page 496
Carbon and Graphite Fibers......Page 498
Historical......Page 499
MICRODENIER FIBERS......Page 500
NANOFIBERS......Page 501
Physical Variants......Page 502
Chemical Varia nt s......Page 504
REFERENCES......Page 506
SUGGESTED READING......Page 507
Dyeing......Page 509
Synthetic Dyes......Page 510
The Development of the U.S. Dyestuff Industry......Page 511
Natural Fibers......Page 513
Regenerated Fibers......Page 514
Synthetic Fibers......Page 515
DYE CLASSIFICATION......Page 516
Acid Dyes......Page 517
Basic or Cationic Dyes......Page 519
Direct Dyes......Page 521
Disperse Dyes......Page 526
Reactive Dyes......Page 529
Sulfur Dyes......Page 530
Vat Dyes......Page 534
Dye-Bath Preparation......Page 537
Finishing......Page 538
PRINTING......Page 539
Ink-jet Dyes......Page 541
Thermal and Pressure-Sensitive Printing......Page 543
Organic Photoconductors and Toners......Page 544
Laser Dyes......Page 545
Hair Dyes......Page 546
DYE INTERMEDIATES......Page 548
Nitration......Page 549
Reduction......Page 551
Amination......Page 553
Sulfonation......Page 554
Halogenation......Page 557
Hydroxylation......Page 559
Other Important Reactions......Page 561
DYE MANUFACTURE......Page 562
Ala DYES......Page 564
Monoazo Dyes......Page 568
Disazo Dyes......Page 569
Polyazo Dyes......Page 573
TRIPHENYLMETHANE DYES......Page 575
XANTHENE DYES......Page 576
Anthraquinone Disperse Dyes......Page 577
Anthraquinone Acid Dyes......Page 581
Anthraquinone Reactive Dyes......Page 583
Anthraquinone......Page 585
INDIGOID AND THIOINDIGOID......Page 588
SULFUR DYES......Page 589
PHTHALOCYANINE DYES......Page 592
FLUORESCENT BRIGHTENERS(COLORLESS "DYES")......Page 593
PRODUCTION AND SALES......Page 596
REFERENCES......Page 599
Adhesion......Page 601
Curing......Page 602
Adhesion Mechanisms......Page 604
Surfaces......Page 605
Introduction......Page 606
Commercial Epoxy Resins......Page 607
Epoxy Cure Chemistry......Page 611
Introduction......Page 616
Isocyanate Reactions......Page 617
Important Isocyanates......Page 619
Evolution......Page 621
Summary......Page 622
Acrylic Monomers......Page 623
Curing......Page 624
Formulation......Page 626
HYBRID ADHESIVES......Page 628
CONCLUSION......Page 629
REFERENCES......Page 630
History......Page 633
Markets for Plastics......Page 634
MOLECULAR WEIGHT......Page 635
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE......Page 636
MORPHOLOGY......Page 637
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)......Page 638
Crystallization and Melting Points (TM)......Page 639
Step-Reaction Polymerization......Page 640
Chain-Reaction Polymerization......Page 641
Coordination Polymerization......Page 643
Suspension Polymerization......Page 645
COPOLYMERIZATION......Page 646
Block and Graft Copolymers......Page 647
Viscoelasticity......Page 648
Failure Behavior......Page 650
Commodity Thermoplastics......Page 651
Engineering and Specialty Thermoplastics......Page 657
Thermoplastic Elastomers......Page 663
Thermoset Plastics......Page 665
Structure-Property Relationships......Page 672
Additives......Page 673
Critical Properties: Challenges to the Plastics Industry......Page 674
Recycling......Page 676
Fundamental Concepts......Page 677
Practical Effects of Flow Properties......Page 678
EXTRUSION......Page 679
Basic Functions......Page 680
Major Processes and Products......Page 681
Injection Molding Cycle (Fig. 15.291......Page 682
Variations and Details......Page 683
Ingredients......Page 684
Definition......Page 685
Polyurethane......Page 686
Polyvinyl Chloride......Page 687
Blow Molding......Page 688
ROTATIONAL MOLDING("ROTOMOLDlNG")......Page 689
Electrostatic Spray......Page 690
VINYL PLASTISOL PROCESSING......Page 691
LIQUID CASTING PROCESSES......Page 692
COMPRESSION MOLDING AND TRANSFER MOLDING......Page 693
Matched Die Molding Processes......Page 694
Open Molding......Page 695
REFERENCES FOR PART I......Page 696
REFERENCES FOR PART II......Page 697
REFERENCES FOR PART III......Page 698
INTRODUCTION......Page 699
RUBBER CONCEPTS......Page 700
Macrostructure......Page 701
Microstructure......Page 702
Elasticity-The Retractive Force......Page 703
Crystallinity......Page 704
Compounding......Page 705
NATURAL RUBBER......Page 706
Uses......Page 707
Polymer Production Process......Page 708
Monomer Production......Page 709
Emulsion Process......Page 710
Solution Process......Page 712
Functional Solution SBR......Page 713
Polymer Production Process......Page 714
Uses......Page 715
Polymer Production......Page 716
Production Process......Page 717
HYDROGENATED NITRILE RUBBER......Page 718
Properties and Uses......Page 719
Uses......Page 720
MODIFIED POLYETHYLENE RUBBERS......Page 721
Block Copolymers......Page 722
lonomers......Page 723
Uses......Page 724
FLUOROCARBON ELASTOMERS......Page 725
REFERENCES......Page 726
Scope of the Chapter......Page 729
ROLE OF THE AGROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY......Page 730
Government Regulation......Page 749
Classes of Agrochemicals......Page 751
PRODUCTS OF THE AGROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY......Page 770
Organophosphorous Agrochemicals......Page 784
Organochlorine......Page 785
Chloracetanilides......Page 788
Aryloxyphenoxypropionic Acids (Cereal Herbicides)......Page 790
ROLE OF CHIRALITY......Page 793
Case Study-Chemistry and Manufacture of Metolachlor......Page 796
Usage of Agrochemicals......Page 797
BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR FARM PRODUCTIVITY......Page 798
Regulatory Scene Regarding Products of Biotechnology......Page 807
Biorational Approach to Chemical Synthesis......Page 809
REFERENCES......Page 810
Hydrocarbon Forms......Page 811
From Well to Refinery......Page 812
PRODUCT......Page 816
Product Specifications......Page 817
Petrochemicals......Page 819
REFINING SCHEMES......Page 820
Feedstock Identification......Page 821
Crude Oil Fractions......Page 822
GASOLINE......Page 823
Sulfur Content......Page 825
Octane Number......Page 826
DISTILLATES......Page 827
PRODUCING MORE LIGHT PRODUCTS......Page 828
Vacuum Distillation......Page 829
Petrochemicals......Page 830
Crude Desalting......Page 832
Crude Distillation......Page 833
Hydrotreating......Page 834
Catalytic Reforming......Page 836
Catalytic Cracking......Page 839
Coking......Page 841
Hydrocracking......Page 842
Alkylation......Page 844
Ether Processes......Page 846
FUTURE TRENDS......Page 848
Technology Options......Page 849
REFERENCES......Page 852
INTRODUCTION......Page 853
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF COAL......Page 854
Coal Structure......Page 857
Coal Composition and Analyses......Page 860
Underground Mining......Page 863
Coal Preparation......Page 864
Fine-Coal Cleaning......Page 866
Environmental Concerns Related to Coal Use......Page 868
Combustion Equipment......Page 869
Boiler Types......Page 873
Pollution Controls......Page 874
Advances in Combustion Technology......Page 876
Nonrecovery Cokemaking......Page 877
Byproduct Coke Production......Page 878
Direct Coal Utilization in the Steel Industry......Page 879
GASIFICATION......Page 880
Chemistry of Coal Gasification......Page 881
Types of Coal Gasifiers......Page 883
Gasification for Power Generation......Page 886
Descriptions of Selected Gasification Processes......Page 888
Factors Affecting Coal Pyrolysis......Page 895
Utilization and Characterization of Pyrolysis Products......Page 897
Direct Coal Liquefaction......Page 898
Direct Coal Liquefaction Processes......Page 899
Indirect Coal Liquefaction......Page 904
PETROCHEMICAL FEEDSTOCKS......Page 910
Chemicals from Coal*......Page 911
Examples of Chemicals Production from Coal......Page 913
REFERENCES......Page 914
CHARACTERISTICS......Page 917
OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS......Page 919
U.S. MARKETED PRODUCTION4-6......Page 921
NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS......Page 924
STRUCTURE OF THE U.S. NATURAL GAS INDUSTRY......Page 925
GAS-TO-L1QUIDS TECHNOLOGY......Page 927
PREPARING NATURAL GAS FOR TRANSMISSION AND SALE......Page 929
PROCESSING FOR L1aUIDS RECOVERY......Page 932
A NEW POTENTIAL SOURCE FOR NATURAL GAS......Page 934
Indirect Conversion via Syngas......Page 935
Oxidative Coupling to Higher Hydrocarbons......Page 936
Pyrolysis or Cracking......Page 938
Methane Reductive Nitrilization......Page 939
Natural Gas from Biological Origins......Page 940
Natural Gas Release from Lower Crust and Mantle Domains......Page 941
SUMMARY FOR METHANE AND NATURAL GAS FUTURE SOURCING......Page 942
REFERENCES......Page 943
INTRODUCTION......Page 945
STATUS AND OUTLOOK......Page 947
NUCLEAR SAFETY......Page 952
THE EARTH'S ENERGY SUPPLY AND USE......Page 955
Radioactive Decay......Page 958
Fission......Page 959
Fusion......Page 961
Fission Products......Page 963
Neutron Transmutation Products......Page 965
Uses......Page 966
REACTOR MATERIALS PROCESSING......Page 967
Isotope Enrichment......Page 968
Zirconium Production......Page 969
THE URANIUM FUEL CYCLE......Page 971
Fuel Preparation......Page 972
Spent Fuel Reprocessing......Page 979
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT......Page 985
Airborne Waste Treatment......Page 987
Solid Waste Treatment......Page 988
Storage of Spent Fuel......Page 989
TRANSPORTATION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS......Page 990
THE NUCLEAR REACTOR......Page 991
Light Water Reactors......Page 993
CANDU Heavy Water Reactor......Page 997
Other Nuclear Reactors......Page 998
RADIATION PROCESSING......Page 999
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators......Page 1000
Nuclear Medicine......Page 1001
REFERENCES......Page 1003
Characteristics......Page 1006
Nitrogen Oxides......Page 1007
Ammonia......Page 1008
NITROGEN CONSUMPTION......Page 1009
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES......Page 1011
AMMONIA PRODUCTION......Page 1012
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION......Page 1013
Manufacturing Processes......Page 1015
Prereformer......Page 1017
Reformer Materials of Construction......Page 1018
Other Reforming Processes......Page 1019
Reliability and Revamps......Page 1020
Small-Scale Reforming......Page 1021
Technology Suppliers......Page 1022
Partial Oxidation Processes......Page 1023
Technology Suppliers......Page 1024
Initial Purification of Synthesis Gas......Page 1027
Giammarco-Vetrocoke Process......Page 1031
Retrofits of CO2 Removal System......Page 1032
Final Purification of Synthesis Gas......Page 1033
Reaction Rate......Page 1034
Catalysts......Page 1036
Ammonia Separation......Page 1038
Chemical Production and Other Uses......Page 1041
Ammonia Toxicity......Page 1042
Distribution and Storage......Page 1043
Physical Properties......Page 1044
Processes......Page 1046
AMMONIUM NITRATE......Page 1055
Processes......Page 1056
Production......Page 1057
UREA......Page 1058
Processes......Page 1059
Storage and Distribution......Page 1061
Processes......Page 1062
ALIPHATIC AMINES......Page 1063
Methylamines......Page 1065
Other Alkyl Amines......Page 1067
Ethanolamine Process......Page 1068
Ethylenediamine Production......Page 1070
Hexamine Processes......Page 1071
Processes......Page 1072
HYDROGEN CYANIDE......Page 1074
Safety......Page 1076
Manufacture......Page 1077
Production......Page 1081
Uses......Page 1082
Processes......Page 1083
OTHER COMPOUNDS......Page 1084
REFERENCES......Page 1087
PHOSPHATE ROCK......Page 1096
Minerals......Page 1097
Mining......Page 1098
Beneficiation......Page 1099
Production and Value......Page 1103
Industrial Phosphates......Page 1104
Wet Process Phosphoric Acid......Page 1106
Dihydrate Process......Page 1107
Major Dihydrate Processes......Page 1108
Hemihydrate Processes for Phosphoric Acid......Page 1112
Unit Operations......Page 1114
Superphosphoric Acid......Page 1115
Phosphogypsum......Page 1116
Purified Phosphoric Acid......Page 1117
REFERENCES......Page 1119
INTRODUCTION......Page 1121
OVERVIEW OF THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY......Page 1124
RAW MATERIALS FOR FERTILIZER PRODUCTION......Page 1127
NITROGEN FERTILIZERS......Page 1128
Nitrogen Fertilizers from Synthetic Ammonia......Page 1129
Miscellaneous Low-Volume Nitrogen Fertilizers......Page 1133
Natural Organic Phosphate Fertilizers......Page 1134
Fertilizers from Mineral Phosphates......Page 1135
Miscellaneous Low-Volume Phosphate Fertilizers......Page 1142
POTASSIUM SALTS......Page 1144
Potassium Sulfate......Page 1146
Potassium Phosphates......Page 1147
COMPOUND FERTILIZERS......Page 1148
Compound Granulars......Page 1149
Bulk Blends......Page 1153
Fluid Mixtures......Page 1155
Controlled-Release Fertilizers......Page 1159
Physical Quality of Fertilizers......Page 1163
REFERENCES......Page 1164
SULFUR......Page 1167
Transportation and Storage......Page 1168
Solidification and Melting......Page 1169
Development of the Sulfur Industry......Page 1171
Sulfur Production Processes......Page 1172
Recovered Sulfur......Page 1173
Production and Consumption of Sulfur......Page 1175
SULFURIC ACID......Page 1178
Development of the Sulfuric Acid Industry......Page 1179
Sulfur Dioxide Production......Page 1182
Oxidation of SO2......Page 1186
Other Modifications to the Sulfuric Process36......Page 1187
Production and Consumption of Sulfuric Acid......Page 1189
REFERENCES......Page 1191
SODIUM CHLORIDE**......Page 1193
SODA ASH......Page 1195
SODIUM SULFATE......Page 1199
SODIUM THIOSULFATE......Page 1202
SODIUM HYPOSULFITE (HYDROSULFITE)......Page 1203
SODIUM SILICATE......Page 1204
CHLOR-ALKALI (CHLORINE AND CAUSTIC SODA)......Page 1206
BROMINE AND BRINE CHEMICALS*......Page 1218
BLEACHES......Page 1221
REFERENCES......Page 1223
OVERVIEW......Page 1225
OXYGEN......Page 1231
HYDROGEN......Page 1232
CARBON DIOXIDE......Page 1237
LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS......Page 1239
ACETYLENE......Page 1240
NITROUS OXIDE......Page 1242
REFERENCES......Page 1243
INTRODUCTION......Page 1244
WOOD STRUCTURE......Page 1245
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FIBER STRUCTURE......Page 1248
PULP AND PAPER......Page 1250
Wood Preparation......Page 1254
Chemical Pulping......Page 1255
Biomechanical Pulping......Page 1262
Bleaching of Wood Pulp......Page 1263
Biotechnology-Biopulping and Biobleaching......Page 1264
Stock Preparation......Page 1265
Papermaking Process......Page 1266
Environmental Protection......Page 1270
Lumber......Page 1271
Particleboard and Oriented Strandboard (OSB)......Page 1272
Modified Wood and Wood Composites......Page 1274
Preservative Chemicals......Page 1278
Preservation Process......Page 1279
Preservative Retention......Page 1280
Nonconventional Wood Preservation......Page 1281
Fire-Retardant Formulations......Page 1282
CONVERSION OF WOOD TO ENERGY, FUELS, AND CHEMICALS......Page 1283
Direct Combustion......Page 1284
Saccharification-Fermentation......Page 1285
Thermal Decomposition......Page 1289
Thermochemical Liquefaction......Page 1294
NAVAL STORES......Page 1295
Gum Naval Stores......Page 1296
Sulfate Naval Stores......Page 1297
Uses of Naval Stores Products......Page 1298
Furfural......Page 1299
Biotechnology Chemicals......Page 1300
REFERENCES......Page 1301
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 1302
INTRODUCTION......Page 1304
VOC REGULATIONS......Page 1306
Midwest......Page 1307
TECHNICAL TRENDS IN COATINGS......Page 1308
Electron Beam (EBI and Ultraviolet (UV) Curable Coatings......Page 1310
Current Automotive Coating Trends......Page 1311
Coatings for Plastics......Page 1312
PRINTING INKS......Page 1313
Inorganic Pigments......Page 1315
Organic Pigments......Page 1317
Pearlescent Pigments......Page 1318
LACQUERS......Page 1319
REFERENCES......Page 1320
INTRODUCTION......Page 1321
Microbial Diversity......Page 1322
Screening and Selection......Page 1324
Cell Engineering......Page 1325
Molecular Engineering......Page 1327
Strain......Page 1328
Sterilization......Page 1329
Microbial Kinetics......Page 1330
Ideal Types of Fermentors......Page 1331
Scale-Up/Down and Control......Page 1334
Instrumentation and Control......Page 1336
RECOVERY OF FERMENTATION PRODUCTS......Page 1337
Separation of Proteins and Peptides......Page 1340
Fermentor Harvest and Primary Recovery......Page 1341
Formulation......Page 1345
Separation of Small Molecules and Metabolites......Page 1350
Organic Acids and Polymers......Page 1352
Amino Acids......Page 1368
Vitamins and Neutraceuticals......Page 1374
Antibiotics......Page 1376
Biopharmaceuticals......Page 1379
FUTURE: BIOREFINERIES......Page 1381
REFERENCES......Page 1382
INTRODUCTION......Page 1385
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES-PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS......Page 1386
Amylases......Page 1388
Glucose Isomerase......Page 1390
Proteases......Page 1391
Cellulases......Page 1393
INDUSTRIAL BIOCATALVSIS......Page 1395
Biocatalyst Discovery and Engineering......Page 1397
Biocatalytic Processes......Page 1401
Immobilized Enzymes......Page 1402
Whole Cell Biocatalysis......Page 1406
BIOREACTOR CONFIGURATIONS......Page 1408
Nonaqueous Biocatalysis......Page 1411
Products of Biocatalysis......Page 1412
Future Trends in Biocatalysis......Page 1425
REFERENCES......Page 1428
32 Industrial Production of Therapeutic Proteins: Cell Lines, Cell Culture, and Purification......Page 1431
HOST CELL LINES......Page 1437
Identifying High-Expressing Cells......Page 1438
Cell Banking......Page 1439
Commercial Serum-Free Media......Page 1440
Approaches for Serum-Free Medium Development......Page 1441
Serum-Free Adaptation......Page 1443
Stirred-Tank Systems......Page 1444
Disposable Bioreactors......Page 1445
CELL CULTURE PROCESS AND CONTROL......Page 1446
Mitigating Effects of Physical and Chemical Stress......Page 1447
Scale-Up of Mammalian Cell Bioreactors......Page 1449
PURIFICATION PROCESS......Page 1450
Clarification of Broth......Page 1451
Capture of Product......Page 1452
Removal of Impurities......Page 1453
Strategies for Scaling Up Purification Processes......Page 1454
REFERENCES......Page 1455
WHAT IS BIOMASS?......Page 1459
The Structure and Composition of Biomass......Page 1460
Biological Versus Thermochemical Processing......Page 1461
THE BIOREFINERV......Page 1464
Life-Cycle Assessments of Biopower......Page 1465
The Competitiveness of Biopower......Page 1466
Biomass as a Substantial Source of Energy-Balancing the Demands on our Land......Page 1468
ETHANOL FERMENTATION SCHEMES......Page 1472
METABOLIC PATHWAY ENGINEERING......Page 1473
FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 1474
The Importance of Reliable Compositional Methods for Biomass Analysis......Page 1475
Heterogeneity and Biomass Analysis......Page 1476
Genetic Factors That May Contribute to Cell Wall Compositional Variability......Page 1477
Environmental Factors That May Contribute to Variance......Page 1479
Wet Chemical Methods......Page 1480
Lignin Determination......Page 1483
Reconstructing the Composition of the Original Biomass Sample......Page 1484
Survey of Corn Stover Compositional Diversity......Page 1486
FUTURE APPLICATIONS......Page 1490
SUMMARY OF PLANT CELL WALL STRUCTURE......Page 1491
ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF PLANT CELL WALL COMPONENTS......Page 1492
CELLULASES......Page 1494
The IUPAC Filter Paper Assay......Page 1495
General Non-IUPAC Cellulases Assays......Page 1497
Viscometric Assays......Page 1498
ß-Glucosidase Activity Measurements......Page 1499
General Hemicellulase Assays......Page 1500
Hemicellulose Debranching Enzymes......Page 1501
Hemicellulose Depolymerization Enzymes......Page 1502
PECTINASES......Page 1504
INTRODUCTION......Page 1505
SCOPE OF THE REVIEW......Page 1507
Solvent Separation Processes......Page 1508
The Kraft Process......Page 1509
Carbohydrate Pyrolysis......Page 1511
Carbohydrate Dehydration......Page 1512
Lignin Deconstruction......Page 1515
INTRODUCTION......Page 1516
PYROLYSIS......Page 1519
Fast Pyrolysis......Page 1520
Slow Pyrolysis......Page 1521
GASIFICATION......Page 1522
Gasifier Reactor Designs......Page 1523
Biomass-Gasification Product Gas......Page 1524
Syngas Cleanup and Conditioning......Page 1525
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle......Page 1527
Syngas to Liquid Fuels......Page 1528
COMBUSTION......Page 1529
Co-Firing......Page 1532
REFERENCES......Page 1533
Human Survival Is Biotechnology......Page 1559
Genetic Messages......Page 1561
Water Activity......Page 1562
Herbicide- and Insect-Resistant Oilseed Crops......Page 1563
Concerns About Transgenic Crops......Page 1565
Drivers and Tools for the Future......Page 1567
Biotechnology Practices in Soybean Production and Processing......Page 1568
Recent Fats and Oils Industry Changes......Page 1570
AOCS, an Information Source......Page 1571
General......Page 1572
Fatty Acids......Page 1573
Oxidation......Page 1579
Biohydrogenation and Conjugated Linoleic Acids......Page 1580
Polymorphism and Crystal Types......Page 1581
Terpenes......Page 1584
Fat-Soluble Vitamins......Page 1587
Phosphatides......Page 1590
Production......Page 1591
Changes in Sources......Page 1592
Consumption......Page 1594
SCREW PRESS OPERATIONS......Page 1595
Decanters and Centrifuges......Page 1596
Palm Oil......Page 1598
Extraction of lards and Tallows......Page 1599
Restaurant Greases......Page 1600
Feeding Animal and Marine Fats......Page 1601
Extraction Plants......Page 1603
Seed Preparation for Extraction......Page 1605
Solvents......Page 1610
Desolventizing-Toasting......Page 1613
Oil Receiving and Handling......Page 1614
Phosphatides Degumming, Lecithin Uses......Page 1616
Alkali Neutralization......Page 1618
Bleaching......Page 1620
Solid Fat Index/Solid Fat Content......Page 1621
Thermal Fractionation......Page 1623
Hydrogenation......Page 1625
Interesterification......Page 1628
Deodorization/Physical Refining......Page 1632
Soybean......Page 1635
Cottonseed......Page 1636
Sunflowerseed......Page 1637
TRANS FATS NUTRITIONAL LABELING......Page 1638
Antioxidants......Page 1640
Table Oils......Page 1642
Frying Oils......Page 1643
Specialty Oils......Page 1645
Margarines And Spreads......Page 1646
Other Edible Applications......Page 1650
Timeline......Page 1651
Industrial Oils Utilization......Page 1652
Fatty Acid Methyl Esters, Biodiesel......Page 1653
Other Industrial Applications......Page 1656
ANALYTICAL METHODS......Page 1657
REFERENCES......Page 1660
INTRODUCTION......Page 1667
RAW SUGAR PRODUCTION......Page 1668
Bagasse......Page 1678
New Technology......Page 1680
Affination and Melting......Page 1681
Purification......Page 1682
Crystallization......Page 1684
Specialty Sugars......Page 1685
BEET SUGAR......Page 1686
Harvesting and Beet Handling......Page 1687
Juice Purification......Page 1688
Evaporation and Standard Liquor......Page 1689
Sugar Recovery from Beet Molasses......Page 1690
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION......Page 1691
DERIVATIVES OF SUCROSES - UCROCHEMISTRY......Page 1692
SWEETENERS DERIVED FROM STARCH......Page 1693
Acid Hydrolysis of Starch......Page 1694
Enzyme-Enzyme Hydrolysis......Page 1695
MOLASSES......Page 1696
OTHER SWEETENERS......Page 1697
REGULATION AND TRADE IN SUGAR......Page 1698
Issues of Genetic Engineering......Page 1699
REFERENCES......Page 1700
Chemistry......Page 1704
Manufacturing Technology......Page 1705
Raw Materials......Page 1706
Manufacturing Processes......Page 1707
Fractionation and Physical Separation......Page 1714
Fat Splitting Processes......Page 1715
Fatty Acid Distillation......Page 1720
Special Separation Methods......Page 1723
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS......Page 1724
Characteristic Features of Surfactants......Page 1725
Raw Materials for Surfactant Production......Page 1726
Intermediates for Surfactant Production......Page 1728
Anionic Surfactants......Page 1732
Nonionic Surfactants......Page 1738
Cationic Surfactants......Page 1740
Detergent Additives......Page 1741
Production of Synthetic Detergents......Page 1744
Agglomeration......Page 1747
Liquid Detergent Processing......Page 1748
Detergent Trends......Page 1749
REFERENCES......Page 1750
COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES MARKET......Page 1752
CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION AND EXPLOSION......Page 1754
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 1757
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES......Page 1759
EXPLOSIVES MANUFACTURING AND USE......Page 1762
HNS 12,2',4,4',6,6'-Hexanitrostilbene)......Page 1763
DDNP (2-Diazo-4,6-dinitrophenol)......Page 1765
NG (Nitroglycerin or Glyercol Trinitrate)......Page 1766
Packaged Explosives......Page 1767
Ammonium Nitrate and ANFO......Page 1769
Bulk Emulsions......Page 1770
INITIATION SYSTEMS......Page 1775
Non-Electric Initiation......Page 1777
PART II. ROCKET PROPELLANTS......Page 1778
PRINCIPLES OF ROCKET PROPULSION......Page 1779
TYPES OF PROPELLANTS......Page 1780
SOLID PROPELLANTS......Page 1781
Composite Propellants......Page 1783
Liquid Propellants......Page 1788
Liquid Fuels......Page 1794
ADVANCED MONOPROPELLANT STUDIES......Page 1796
BIPROPELLANT FUELS......Page 1797
IGNITION DELAY......Page 1798
REFERENCES......Page 1801
Index (original)......Page 1804
A......Page 1826
B......Page 1833
C......Page 1837
D......Page 1851
E......Page 1853
F......Page 1857
G......Page 1862
H......Page 1864
I......Page 1866
K......Page 1869
L......Page 1870
M......Page 1871
N......Page 1874
P......Page 1878
R......Page 1892
S......Page 1895
T......Page 1903
V......Page 1905
W......Page 1906
X......Page 1907
Z......Page 1908