Foreword
Preface
J.L. Pawsey and a New Understanding of Early Radio Astronomy
Who Was J.L. Pawsey?
Our Approach: Understanding Science Through History
Different Perspectives on History
Structure of This Book
Pawsey in the History of Radio Astronomy
Ideas in This Book
Perspective and History
Pawsey and the Philosophy and Sociology of Science
J.L. Pawsey: A Quintessential Mertonian Scientist
Meet the Authors
W. M. Goss
Ronald D. Ekers
Claire Hooker
Additional Texts and Sources
Our Sources
Acknowledgements
Contents
Part I: Childhood
Chapter 1: An Inheritance of Intangibles, 1890s
Chapter 2: Just a Boy from the Bush, 1908-1925
The YAL Tour of Europe December 1924 to July 1925
Chapter 3: Becoming a Physicist, 1926-1929
Part II: Becoming a Scientist
Chapter 4: New Opportunities in Australian Science, 1929
The Developing Independence of Australian Science and the Formation of the CSIR
Creation of the CSIR, Scene of Most of Pawsey´s Career
Radio: A Technology Transforming Australia
The Creation of the Radio Research Board (CSIR): High Impact in Constrained Circumstances
David F. Martyn, A.L. Green and G.H. Munro and L.H. Huxley Are Recruited to the Radio Research Board, 1929-1930
Chapter 5: Ionospheric Research, 1895-1935
The Beginnings of Radio
1902-1925: Surface Diffraction-A Productive Research Program Based on an Incorrect Premise
1910-1919: The Austin-Cohen Formula: Discarding Anomalous Data
Hypothesising an ``Ionosphere´´
The Idea of Atmospheric Reflection, 1902
Direction-Finding Equipment and the Existence of the Ionosphere
Thinking with Equipment: Adapting Direction-Finders to Investigate ``Sky Waves´´
Sir Edward Appleton, the Frequency-Change Method and the Magneto-Ionic Theory of the ``Ionosphere´´, 1924
Connections to Cambridge and London: How the Magneto-Ionic Paradigm Generated a Research Program in Australia, 1929-1939
An American Contribution: The ``Pulse-Echo´´ Method for Ionospheric ``Sounding´´, 1925
Chapter 6: To the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge, 1931
1931: Award of an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, Choice Between London and Cambridge
Friends and Student Life: J. L. Pawsey and Frederick H. ``Ted´´ Nicoll from Canada, 1931-1933
Chapter 7: Research for PhD Thesis at Cambridge, 1931-1934
Stages 1 and 2: De-Correlated Echoes and Lateral Deviation of Downcoming ``Wireless´´ Waves
Stage 3: Use of the Appleton Frequency-Change Method
Stage 4: Tuve-Breit Pulse-Echo Method, Pawsey 1932-1934
Summary of 4 Stages of Research
Conclusion of Pawsey´s Thesis 1935
Ratcliffe´s Evaluation of Pawsey´s Research of 1931-1934, in 1974
Chapter 8: After the PhD: Electric and Musical Industries (EMI) and Marriage to Lenore Nicoll, 1934-1939
J.L. Pawsey: Courtship and Marriage
Courtship (1933-1934) and Marriage (1935) to Lenore Nicoll
Seeking Employment outside the UK
Part III: WWII 1939-1945
Chapter 9: Pawsey´s Role in Australian Radar Research in World War II, 1939-1945
Radar History: An Australian Perspective, 1930s
Radar: British Secrecy and Australian Developments, 1930s
Pawsey´s Recruitment to RPL
Radiophysics Laboratory, 1940-1941: Shore Defence, the T/R Switch and the Buggery Bar
Australian Isolation: Other Developments in Radar
Difficulties at Radiophysics, 1941
Scientific Liaison Overseas
Air Warning, 1941-1942: Applied Science and Wartime Bureaucracy
Light-Weight/Air Warning (LW/AW) Radar, 1942
Emerging Leadership and Microwave Radar in Australia
1943- a ``Golden Year´´ in Australian Radar: Changes in Outlook
Radar and Victory in the Pacific, 1945
Chapter 10: Transition to Peace, 1945-1946
Post-War Planning in 1943
Post-War Planning in 1944
Radiophysics and the Military Part Company
From CSIR to CSIRO: Organisational Change
Aversion to Secrecy at CSIR
Towards the Sun
Part IV: Hot Corona
Chapter 11: Beginnings of Solar Radio Astronomy, 1944-1945
The Forerunners
From Applied Science to a New Field
Radio Astronomy in New Zealand and Australia
Chapter 12: Serendipity: Sunspots at Collaroy, 1945-1946
Serendipity
Action in Sydney at the End of WWII
The Original Data from Collaroy: First Post-War Radio Astronomy Records
Planning the Next Phase of Research, December 1945
Chapter 13: Sea-Cliff Interferometry: Dover Heights, 1946
Breakthroughs
The First Fringes: Australia Day, 26 January 1946
The Giant Sunspot of Early February 1946
Principle of Aperture Synthesis
Variations Are Intrinsic to the Sun, Typical Bursts Non-thermal
Chapter 14: The Million Degree Solar Corona, 1945-1946
Introduction
Understanding the Sun
Preparation to Publish Radio Observation of the Hot Corona
ANZAAS 1946 and URSI, Paris, 1946
``Hot Corona´´ Published in Nature, 2 November 1946
Afterword: Pawsey and Yabsley Summary Publication on Radio Properties of the Quiet Sun, 1949
Priority Disputes and Scientific Discovery
Part V: Connections
Chapter 15: Horizons, 1944-1947
Introduction
Before Solar Radio Astronomy at Collaroy
Planning for Travel
Family Life
Towards Departure
Chapter 16: A New Field of Science, Postwar
Other Developments at RPL: Cloud Physics
RPL Sydney: Pawsey Builds a ``Learning Organisation´´ for a New Field of Science
The Sun and the Radio Stars
Groups, Stations and Projects
Managing an Emerging Learning Organisation
Developments in the UK
The Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge: Martin Ryle´s Group
At the University of Manchester: Bernard Lovell´s Group
Developments in the USA
Developments in Canada
National Research Council in Ottawa
David Dunlop Observatory in Toronto
The Netherlands: The Bridge Between Radio and Optical Observation
Leading the World from ``Down Under´´?
Chapter 17: Pursuing ``Radio Astronomy´´: Pawsey´s Travels to North America, the UK and Europe, 1947-1948
Contacts with Australian Post-Graduate Students at Cambridge
Presenting Australian Results
Considering ``Radio Stars´´
Reporting Back
Pawsey´s Attempts to Recruit Theoretician Colleagues
The Costs of Absence: Bowen´s Review of the Laboratory, May 1948
RPL Awaits Pawsey´s Return, 1948
Publications Concerns at RPL
Homeward Bound
Chapter 18: Scintillating Relationship with Cambridge, 1948-1951
Scintillation and Cygnus A 1946-1950; Bolton, Stanley and Slee in New Zealand
Further Disadvantage
The Cosmic Noise Expedition, New Zealand, and the Identification of Taurus A, Centaurus A and Virgo A
The Positions of the Brightest Two Radio Sources, Graham Smith-1951: Cygnus A and Cassiopeia A
Part VI: Quiet Leadership
Chapter 19: Consolidation: Leadership at RPL, 1950-1951
Introduction
To Europe
A Textbook for Radio Astronomy
URSI 1950, Zurich: 9 to 22 September
The Textbook Is Contracted
Resourcing Astronomy in Australia, 1951-1952
Addendum: Long Visions
Chapter 20: Finite Resources: Pawsey and the HI-Line, 1948-1960
Introduction
1948 and Pawsey´s First Realisation of the Importance of the HI Line
Mills and HI Line in 1949
Paul Wild, Ruby Payne-Scott, John Bolton and the HI Line
HI Line Detected and Confirmation in Sydney 6 July 1951
Chapter 21: No More Radio Stars! 1952
The End of the ``Radio Star´´ Model: Measuring Radio Source Sizes
URSI Comes to Sydney
Excitement at URSI: The Angular Size of Sources
Collaborations at and After URSI 1952
Chapter 22: ``Radio´´ is Part of Astronomy, 1947-1961
Introduction
Radio Astronomy in 1953
B.Y. Mills
Correspondence Between Mount Wilson/Palomar with RPL: 1953
The Mills Cross, March 1953
Mills´s Visit to the US August 1953-February 1954
Chapter 23: The Galactic Centre, 1951-1954
Introduction
The Piddington and Minnett (1951) Observations and Interpretation
The New ``Hole-in-the-Ground´´ Telescope at Dover Heights
Pawsey´s Interest and Bolton´s Departure, 1952-1953
Surveying the Sky
Confidence and Caution: Publishing the Galactic Centre Discovery, 1954
Aftermath, 1955
The Big Picture
The Nobel Prize
Chapter 24: The Royal Society: Europe and North America, 1954
Election as Fellow of the Royal Society of London
The Significance of Radio as a Field of Astronomy
Pawsey´s Overseas Trip July-October 1954
URSI General Assembly in the Hague from 23 August to 4 September 1954
Solar Work: Potts Hill
Mills Cross: Fleurs
HI in the Magellanic Clouds: Potts Hill
Galactic HI: Potts Hill
David Martyn: URSI 1954
London and Freiberg September 1954
New York, Visit to North American October 1954
Canada: October 1954
Completing the Textbook Radio Astronomy: Caltech and Berkeley, Mid October 1954
Back at CSIRO in Sydney: Late October 1954
Chapter 25: The Sun and the Ionosphere, 1946-1955
The Status of Ionospheric and Solar Physics in the World of Astronomy
Solar Radio Astronomy in Australia (1947-1955)
The First Radio Observations of the Sun
Ionospheric Research 1947-1954
Thermal Radiation from the Ionosphere, 1947-1953
Study of the Ionospheric D Layer, 1951-1953
Ionospheric Scintillation (1954)
Chapter 26: Overseas Again: Jodrell Bank and IAU, August 1955
Introduction
The Textbook Was Published at Last
ANZAAS Presidential Address
Overseas Again
Jodrell Bank Symposium
Ninth IAU General Assembly, Dublin, Ireland, 29 August-5 September 1955
Proposal for Revised Galactic Coordinate System
Part VII: Towards a Bigger Science
Chapter 27: Pawsey and the Giant Radio Telescope, 1951-1956
The Emergence of the Big Dish Concept
RPL Planning for the Future in 1951-1952
1953-1954 Events at RPL
1955-1956 Events
1956: Appleton
Recruitment of Bart Bok as Mt Stromlo Observatory Director
Chapter 28: Brain Drain: Trip to US and Canada 1957-1959
Planning the Trip: See ESM 28.1, Trip to US, for Full Details
1958
Chapter 29: Driving the GRT, 1957-1959
1957-1958 Events
Are You Prepared to Take It on? Contracting and Construction of the GRT
End 1958: Tailtwister I, Bowen in New York and London, 13 November-23 December 1958
Tailtwister II: 1959
Scientific Plans: Pawsey´s Views on Future Research Programs
Chapter 30: Schism at Radiophysics, 1960
Delays to the Proposed Mills ``Super-Cross´´
Proposals to the Australian National University (ANU)
Resignation of Christiansen, March 1960
Resignation of Mills, May 1960
The Present Difficulties in Australian Radio Astronomy, Pawsey 31 March 1960
Bowen´s Response to ``The Difficulties in Australian Radio Astronomy´´ April 1960
Reactions to the Mills, Christiansen Resignations, May-July 1960
Impact of the Schism on Australian Radio Astronomy
Leadership of the GRT Programme in 1960-John Bolton Returns to RPL from Caltech
Pawsey, Disillusioned with CSIRO: Late 1960
Chapter 31: John Bolton Returns, 1960-1961
The GRT Nears Completion
Plans for the GRT: Sydney, October 1960
GRT Receiver Plans
Pawsey-Bolton GRT Discussion, Late 1960
Chapter 32: Reflections on GRT Science, post 1961
Planning the First Months of the GRT: The Parkes Telescope
Progress with the GRT Construction: 1961
Opening of the GRT, 31 October 1961
Events After the Opening: RPL Scientists, Publicity in the International Press
1962: First Full Year of the Parkes Radio Telescope
Parkes Telescope Scientific Programmes, 1962
Planned Observations
Unexpected Science with the Parkes Telescope
Later Developments
Why Was the Parkes Design so Successful Compared to Contemporary Radio Telescopes?
Part VIII: The Development of Understanding
Chapter 33: Pawsey and Philosophy of Science
Early Thoughts on Science
Pawsey and Public Policy
``On Planning Research Along `Theoretical Lines´ or `Exploratory Lines´ and on Conditions of Success´´, 1948
Caution and Risk
Chapter 34: The Development of a Theory for Radio Emission
Introduction
Discovery of Non-thermal Radio Emission
What Was the Radio Emission Mechanism?
The Hot Solar Corona
The Active Sun
Non-thermal Radio Sources
Cosmic Rays and Synchrotron Radiation
Synchrotron Model for Radio Emission
Bernie Mills Discussing the Radiation Mechanism and the Polarisation Prediction
IAU Symposium on Radio Astronomy, Manchester 1955
Symposium on Radio Astronomy: Paris 1958
How Isolation Impacted Radio Astronomy Research in Australia
Chapter 35: Radio Source Survey: Disputes, 1948-1957
Introduction
Early Radio Source Surveys
The 2C survey and Extragalactic Radio Sources: Radio Sources as a Population
Ryle´s Halley Lecture, Oxford, 6 May 1955
1955 IAU Symposium no 4 on Radio Astronomy
Pawsey Correspondence with Southworth, Oort and Appleton
1955-1957: Increased Controversy Between Sydney and Cambridge
Scientific American Interchange Sept 1956 Between Ryle and Mills
Probability of a Deflection-P(D) Analysis
Pawsey´s Matthew Flinders Lecture
AAS Symposium on ``Radio Sources Outside Our Galaxy´´
Chapter 36: Radio Source Survey: Reconciliation, 1958-1962
The 3C Survey-Early Results 1957 and 1958
Royal Astronomical Society (RAS), 14 March 1958: Scheuer, Ryle and Bondi
Bakerian Lecture, June 1958
IAU Paris Symposium No. 9, 30 July-6 Aug 1958
Ryle´s Contribution to the Session
Hazard-Walsh Presentation: Subsequent Heated Discussion
Mills: ``A Survey of Radio Sources at 3.5 m Wavelength´´
Impressions of Many Participants after Paris
IAU MOSCOW, August 12-20, 1958
Summary of Radio Cosmology 1960
1960 And Beyond-Radio Astronomy´s Source Counts Achieve Consensus
Chapter 37: The Evolution of Aperture Synthesis Imaging
Introduction
Early Development of Indirect Imaging in some Other Disciplines
Optical Astronomy
Fourier Theory
X-Ray imaging in Medicine
X-Ray Crystallography
Ratcliffe and Pawsey: The Cambridge-Sydney Connection
The Sea-Cliff Interferometers
Fourier Synthesis at Cambridge
Other Radio Interferometry Developments in the UK
Imaging Arrays at the Sydney Field Stations
Fourier Synthesis
The First Earth-Rotation 2D Aperture Synthesis Image
The Role of Electronic Computers: Calculating the Fourier Transforms
Impact of Computers on Medical Imaging
Aperture Synthesis Developments at Cambridge
The Cambridge Earth Rotation Aperture Synthesis Telescopes
Nobel Prize
Further Developments of Aperture Synthesis Telescopes in the US
Discussion
Part IX: Death and Legacy
Chapter 38: To the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 1961
Additional Honours and Questions
The NRAO Directorship
Pawsey Leaves for the US and Europe, 1961
The Santa Barbara Conference IAU Symposium no 15
The 11th General Assembly of the IAU 13-24 August 1961, Berkeley, University of California
Joint Discussion on Problems Requiring Radio-Astronomical Observations of High Sensitivity and Resolution: Berkeley IAU- Monda...
Post IAU in the US, 1961
Pawsey, Recruited in Earnest
To Europe
GRT Opening 31 October 1961, Simultaneously with the NRAO Directorship Offer by Rabi
Chapter 39: Visions for NRAO, 1962
Introduction
``Notes on Future Program at Green Bank´´ Report Prepared at Massachusetts General Hospital 17 July 1962
Two Major Projects
Pawsey´s Notebook with Additional Plans for NRAO in 1962
Astronomical topics
Policy Issues for NRAO in 1962
Pawsey´s Attempted Recruitment of Erickson and Scheuer, 1962
Bill Erickson
Peter Scheuer
Pawsey´s Concept of an OBSERVATORY, 1962
J.L. Pawsey´s Interactions with David S. Heeschen and Frank D. Drake, 1962
Chapter 40: The Final Year, 1962
Pawsey Returns to the US
Tragedy at Green Bank, March 1962
Pawsey Returns to Australia
Chapter 41: Legacy
Pawsey Memorial Funeral Service, Sydney 3 Dec 1962
Pawsey Lecture Series, Australian Institute of Physics, 1965-1999
Obituary by Christiansen and Mills (1964): A Personal Assessment
Immortalisation in Fiction by Fred Hoyle
Pawsey Medal
Chapter 42: Conclusion: J.L. Pawsey (1908-1962) and the Development of Radio Astronomy
Joe Pawsey and the Founding of Australian Radio Astronomy
Pawsey and the History of Ideas in Radio Astronomy
Discoveries Made and Missed
The Conditions for Success
Conclusion
Appendix A: Abbreviations
Appendix B: Dramatis Personnae
Appendix C: Timeline of Key Events
Appendix D: Electronic Supplemental Material
Appendix E: NRAO ONLINE Supplementary Resources
References
Index
