Introduction to Quantum Metrology: Quantum Standards and Instrumentation

Preface
Contents
1 Theoretical Background of Quantum Metrology
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Schrödinger Equation and Pauli Exclusion Principle
1.3 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
1.4 Limits of Measurement Resolution
References
2 Measures, Standards and Systems of Units
Abstract
2.1 History of Systems of Measurement
2.2 The International System of Units (SI)
2.3 Measurements and Standards of Length
2.4 Measurements and Standards of Mass
2.5 Clocks and Measurements of Time
2.6 Temperature Scales
2.7 Standards of Electrical Quantities
References
3 The New SI System of Units---The Quantum SI
Abstract
3.1 Towards the New System of Units
3.2 Units of Measure Based on Fundamental Physical Constants
3.3 New Definitions of the Kilogram
3.4 New Definitions of the Ampere, Kelvin and Mole
3.5 Quantum Metrological Triangle and Pyramid
References
4 Quantum Voltage Standards
Abstract
4.1 Superconductivity
4.1.1 Superconducting Materials
4.1.2 Theories of Superconductivity
4.1.3 Properties of Superconductors
4.2 Josephson Effect
4.3 Josephson Junctions
4.4 Voltage Standards
4.4.1 Voltage Standards with Weston Cells
4.4.2 DC Voltage Josephson Standards
4.4.3 AC Voltage Josephson Standards
4.4.3.1 Voltage Sources with Binary Divided Josephson Junctions
4.4.3.2 Voltage Standard with Pulse-Driven Josephson Junctions
4.4.4 Voltage Standard at GUM
4.4.5 Comparison GUM Standard with the BIPM Standard
4.4.6 Precision Comparator Circuits
4.5 Superconductor Digital Circuits
4.5.1 Prospective Development of Semiconductor Digital Circuits
4.5.2 Digital Circuits with Josephson Junctions
4.6 Other Applications of Josephson Junctions
4.6.1 Voltage-to-Frequency Converter
4.6.2 Source of Terahertz Radiation
References
5 SQUID Detectors of Magnetic Flux
Abstract
5.1 Quantization of Magnetic Flux
5.2 RF-SQUID
5.2.1 RF-SQUID Equation
5.2.2 Measurement System with an RF-SQUID
5.3 DC-SQUID
5.3.1 DC-SQUID Equation
5.3.2 Energy Resolution and Noise of the DC-SQUID
5.3.3 Parameters of a DC-SQUID
5.4 Measurement System with a DC-SQUID
5.4.1 Operation of the Measurement System
5.4.2 Input Circuit
5.4.3 Two-SQUID Measurement System
5.4.4 SQUID Measurement System with Additional Positive Feedback
5.4.5 Digital SQUID Measurement System
5.5 Magnetic Measurements with SQUID Systems
5.5.1 Magnetic Signals and Interference
5.5.2 Biomagnetic Studies
5.5.3 Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials
5.6 SQUID Noise Thermometers
5.6.1 R-SQUID Noise Thermometer
5.6.2 DC-SQUID Noise Thermometer
5.6.3 Other Applications of SQUIDs
References
6 Quantum Hall Effect and the Resistance Standard
Abstract
6.1 Hall Effect
6.2 Quantum Hall Effect
6.2.1 Electronic Devices with 2-DEG
6.2.2 Physical Grounds of the Quantum Hall Effect
6.2.3 QHE Samples
6.2.4 Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene
6.3 Measurement Setup of the Classical Electrical Resistance Standard at the GUM
6.4 Quantum Standard Measurement Systems
6.5 Quantum Standard of Electrical Resistance in the SI System
References
7 Quantization of Electrical and Thermal Conductance in Nanostructures
Abstract
7.1 Theories of Electrical Conduction
7.2 Macroscopic and Nanoscale Structures
7.3 Studies of Conductance Quantization in Nanostructures
7.3.1 Formation of Nanostructures
7.3.2 Measurements of Dynamically Formed Nanowires
7.4 Quantization of Thermal Conductance in Nanostructures
7.5 Scientific and Technological Impacts of Conductance Quantization in Nanostructures
References
8 Single Electron Tunneling
Abstract
8.1 Electron Tunneling
8.1.1 Phenomenon of Tunneling
8.1.2 Theory of Single Electron Tunneling
8.2 Electronic Circuits with SET Junctions
8.2.1 SETT Transistor
8.2.2 Electron Pump and Turnstile Device
8.3 Capacitance Standard Based on Counting Electrons
8.4 Thermometer with the Coulomb Blockade
References
9 Atomic Clocks and Time Scales
Abstract
9.1 Theoretical Principles
9.1.1 Introduction
9.1.2 Allan Variance
9.1.3 Structure and Types of Atomic Standards
9.2 Caesium Atomic Frequency Standards
9.2.1 Caesium-Beam Frequency Standard
9.2.2 Caesium Fountain Frequency Standard
9.3 Hydrogen Maser and Rubidium Frequency Standard
9.3.1 Hydrogen Maser Frequency Standard
9.3.2 Rubidium Frequency Standard
9.3.3 Parameters of Atomic Frequency Standards
9.4 Optical Radiation Frequency Standards
9.4.1 Sources of Optical Radiation
9.4.2 Optical Frequency Comb
9.5 Time Scales
9.6 National Time and Frequency Standard in Poland
References
10 Standards and Measurements of Length
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Realization of the Definition of the Metre
10.2.1 CIPM Recommendations Concerning the Realization of the Metre
10.2.2 Measurements of Length by the CIPM Recommendation
10.3 Iodine-Stabilized 633 nm He-Ne Laser
10.4 Satellite Positioning Systems
10.4.1 Positioning Systems
10.4.2 Global Positioning System
10.4.3 GLONASS Positioning System
10.4.4 Galileo Positioning System
10.4.5 Regional Positioning Systems: BeiDou, IRNSS and QZSS
References
11 Scanning Probe Microscopes
Abstract
11.1 Atomic Resolution Microscopes
11.1.1 Operating Principle of a Scanning Probe Microscope
11.1.2 Types of Near-Field Interactions in SPM
11.1.3 Basic Parameters of SPM
11.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
11.3 Atomic Force Microscope
11.3.1 Atomic Forces
11.3.2 Performance of Atomic Force Microscope
11.3.3 Measurements of Microscope Cantilever Deflection
11.3.4 AFM with Measurement of Cantilever Resonance Oscillation
11.4 Electrostatic Force Microscope
11.5 Scanning Thermal Microscope
11.6 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope
11.7 Opportunities of Scanning Probe Microscopy Development
References
12 New Standards of Mass
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mass Standards Based on the Planck Constant
12.2.1 Watt Balance Standard
12.2.2 Levitation Standard and Electrostatic Standard
12.3 Silicon Sphere Standard
12.3.1 Reference Mass and the Avogadro Constant
12.3.2 Measurement of Volume of Silicon Unit Cell
12.3.3 Measurement of Volume of Silicon Sphere
12.4 Ions Accumulation Standard
References
Index