'The purpose of this book is, frankly, pedagogical. The author has
attempted to present such a discussion of the origin, development, and
present status of some of the more important concepts of physics, classical
as well as modem, as will give to the student a correct perspective of the
growth and present trend of physics as a whole. Such a perspective
is a necessary basis—so the author, at least, believes—for a more intensive
study of any of the various subdivisions of the subject. While for the
student whose interests are cultural, or who is to enter any of the
professions directly or indirectly related to physics, such as engineering,
chemistry, astronomy, or mathematics, an account of modern physics
which gives the origin of current theories is likely to be quite as interesting
and valuable as in a categorical statement of the theories themselves.
Indeed, in all branches of human knowledge the ‘why’ is an absolutely
indispensable accompaniment to the ‘what.’ ‘Why?’ is the proverbial
question of childhood. ‘Why?* inquires the thoughtful (!) student in
classroom or lecture hall. *Why?’ demands the venerable scientist
when listening to an exposition of views held by a colleague.
Accordingly, if this book seems to lay somewhat greater emphasis on matters
which are frequently regarded as historical, or, if here and there a classical
experiment is described in greater detail than is customary, it is with a
desire to recognize the importance of ‘why.’
Author(s): Richtmyer F.K.,Kennard E.H.,Cooper J.N.
Edition: 6
Publisher: McGraw-Hill
Year: 1969
Language: English
Pages: 786
Richtmyer F.K.,Kennard E.H.,Cooper J.N. Introduction to modern physics (ed.6,McGraw-Hill, c1969) ......Page 5
Copyright ......Page 6
Contents ......Page 11
Preface vii ......Page 7
1.1 Classical vs. Modern Physics ......Page 17
1.3 Thales of Miletus ......Page 19
1.5 Anaxagoras and Empedocles ......Page 20
1.7 Aristotle ......Page 21
1.10 From the Greeks to Copernicus......Page 23
1.11 The Copernican System ......Page 25
1.12 Galileo Galilei ......Page 26
1.13 Tycho Brahe and Kepler ......Page 29
1.14 The Experimental Method Spreads ......Page 31
1.15 Sir Isaac Newton ......Page 32
1.16 Newton's Contemporaries ......Page 38
1.18 Heat during the Eighteenth Century ......Page 39
1.20 Electricity during the Eighteenth Century ......Page 40
1.22 The Nineteenth Century in Physics ......Page 42
1.23 Heat and Energy ......Page 43
1.24 Light ......Page 44
1.25 Electricity and Magnetism ......Page 46
1.26 Michael Faraday ......Page 48
1.27 Joseph Henry ......Page 54
1.28 James Clerk Maxwell ......Page 55
1.29 Clouds over Classical Physics ......Page 58
2.1 Galilean-Newtonian Relativity ......Page 61
2.2 Galilean Relativity and Electricity ......Page 63
2.3 Relativity and the Propagation of Light ......Page 64
2.4 The Michelson-Morley Experiment ......Page 66
2.5 The New Relativity of Einstein ......Page 70
2.6 Simultaneity and Time Order ......Page 71
2.7 The Lorentz Transformation ......Page 73
2.8 Space Contraction and Time Dilation ......Page 75
2.9 Velocity Transformations ......Page 77
2.10 The Variation of Mass ......Page 78
2.11 Force and Kinetic Energy ......Page 79
2.12 Mass and Energy ......Page 81
2.13 Mass and Potential Energy ......Page 82
Problems ......Page 84
3.1 The Interval between Events ......Page 89
3.2 Four-vectors ......Page 90
3.3 Proper Time and the Four-momentum ......Page 93
3.4 Relativistic Mechanics ......Page 96
3.5 Relativity and Electromagnetism ......Page 98
3.6 Maxwell's Equations and the Four-potential ......Page 99
3.7 The Field Tensor ......Page 102
3.8 General Theory of Relativity ......Page 106
Problems ......Page 108
4.1 Chemical Evidence for Atoms ......Page 113
4.2 The Ideal Gas ......Page 115
4.3 Degrees of Freedom and the Equiparlition of Energy ......Page 117
4.4 The Maxwellian Distribution ......Page 119
4.5 The Boltzmann Distribution ......Page 123
4.6 Phase Space and the Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution ......Page 124
4.7 The Sizes of Atoms ......Page 126
Appendix 4A Integrals Arising in the Kinetic Theory ......Page 127
Problems ......Page 129
5.1 Thermal Radiation ......Page 133
5.2 Early Radiation Laws ......Page 135
5.3 Degrees of Freedom in an Enclosure ......Page 137
5.4 The Rayleigh-Jeans Radiation Law ......Page 141
5.6 Distribution of Energy among Oscillators in Thermal Equilibrium ......Page 142
5.7 Planck's Quantum Hypothesis ......Page 145
5.8 Planck's Radiation Law ......Page 148
5A.1 Pressure and Energy Flux Due to Isotropic Radiation ......Page 151
5A.2 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law ......Page 154
5A.3 Reflection from a Moving Mirror ......Page 157
5 A.4 Effect of an Adiabatic Expansion upon Blackbody Radiation ......Page 159
Problems ......Page 162
6.1 Electricity in Matter ......Page 165
6.2 Discovery of Photoelectricity ......Page 166
6.3 The Zeeman Effect ......Page 169
6.4 Cathode Rays and the Electron ......Page 171
6.5 The Electronic Charge ......Page 173
6.6 Photoelectrons ......Page 175
6.7 What Is the Photoelectric Mechanism? ......Page 177
6.8 Properties of Photoelectric Emission ......Page 181
6.9 Thermionic Emission ......Page 182
Problems ......Page 183
Chapter 7 X-rays 171 ......Page 187
7.1 The Discovery of X-rays ......Page 188
7.2 Production and Detection of X-rays ......Page 189
7.3 Wavelengths of X-rays ......Page 190
7.4 Bragg's Law ......Page 192
7.5 The X-ray Spectrometer ......Page 194
7.6 Monochromatic Characteristic Radiation ......Page 196
7.7 Moseley's Law ......Page 199
7.8 The Continuous X-ray Spectrum ......Page 201
7.9 X-ray Scattering, Classical ......Page 204
7.10 Compton Scattering ......Page 208
7.11 Compton Recoil Electrons ......Page 212
7.12 The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation ......Page 214
Problems ......Page 215
Chapter 8 Radioactivity and the Nuclear Atom 203 ......Page 219
8.1 Earliest Developments ......Page 220
8.2 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays ......Page 221
8.3 Early Views on Atomic Structure ......Page 224
8.4 The Scattering of Alpha Particles by Atoms ......Page 225
8.5 The Nuclear Atom ......Page 227
8.6 Radioactive Transformations ......Page 230
Appendix 8A The Rutherford Scattering Law ......Page 237
Problems ......Page 240
9.1 The Balmer Series ......Page 243
9.2 Spectral Series and Their Interrelations ......Page 246
9.3 Spectral Terms ......Page 248
9.4 The Bohr Theory ......Page 249
9.5 The Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen ......Page 254
9.6 Ionized Helium ......Page 255
9.7 Moseley's Law ......Page 256
9.8 The Bohr Magneton ......Page 257
9.9 Electron Spin ......Page 259
9.10 The Bohr Correspondence Principle ......Page 260
9.11 Extension of Bohr's Theory ......Page 262
Problems ......Page 264
10.1 Alpha and Gamma Spectra of Radioelements ......Page 267
10.2 Beta Rays and the Antineutrino ......Page 271
10.3 Masses of Atoms ......Page 273
10.4 Isotopes of Stable Elements ......Page 276
10.5 The Nucleons ......Page 279
10.6 The Positron ......Page 280
10.7 Muons and Pions ......Page 282
10.8 Particles and Antiparticles ......Page 283
10.10 Interactions between Particles ......Page 286
10.11 Preternatural Atoms ......Page 288
Problems ......Page 289
Chapter 11 Wave Properties of Particles 277 ......Page 293
11.1 Matter Waves ......Page 294
11.2 Mechanics as Geometrical Optics of the Waves ......Page 295
11.3 Phase and Group Velocity ......Page 298
11.4 The de Broglie Wavelength ......Page 300
11.5 Experiments on Electron Waves ......Page 302
11.6 Diffraction of Neutrons and Molecules ......Page 305
11.7 Electrons and the Wave Function ......Page 306
11.8 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle ......Page 312
11.9 The Schrddinger Wave Equation ......Page 316
Problems ......Page 319
12.1 Electron Ream in a Field-free Space ......Page 323
12.2 The Step Barrier ......Page 325
12.3 Barrier Penetration ......Page 329
12.4 The “Square" Well Free States ......Page 331
12.5 Wave Packets and the Momentum Representation ......Page 333
12.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle ......Page 336
12.7 Probability Stream Density ......Page 337
Problems ......Page 340
13.1 Stationary or Quantum States ......Page 343
13.2 General Solutions for the Square Welt ......Page 344
13.3 The Infinite Square Well ......Page 347
13.5 Expectation Values ......Page 349
13.6 Differential Operators ......Page 350
13.7 The Rectangular Box ......Page 352
13.8 The Harmonic Oscillator ......Page 355
13.9 Properties of Eigenfunctions ......Page 358
13.10 Transitions between States ......Page 359
13.11 Perturbation Theory ......Page 361
13.12 Emission and Absorption of Radiation ......Page 363
Appendix 13A The Harmonic Oscillator ......Page 366
Problems ......Page 368
14.1 The Schrodinger Equation for a One-electron Atom ......Page 373
14.2 Separation of Variables ......Page 375
14.3 The Wave Functions and Energy Levels ......Page 376
14.4 Probability Density and Charge-cloud Density ......Page 379
14.5 Orbital Angular Momentum ......Page 382
14.6 Retativistic Effects and Electron Spin ......Page 385
14.7 The Spin-Orbit Interaction ......Page 387
14.8 The Quantum Number j ......Page 388
Appendix ......Page 389
Appendix 14A Solutions of the Radial Equation ......Page
Problems ......Page 393
15.1 The Pauli Exclusion Principle ......Page 397
15.2 Shells and Subshells ......Page 401
15.3 The Periodic Table ......Page 403
15.4 The First Two Periods ......Page 405
15.5 Remainder of the Periodic Table ......Page 408
15.6 Penetrating Orbits ......Page 410
15.7 Low-lying Energy States ......Page 412
15.8 X-ray Energy Levels ......Page 414
15.9 Photoelectrons Ejected by X-rays ......Page 415
Appendix 15A Wave Mechanics for Two Identical Particles with Spin One-half ......Page 417
15 A.1 Interacting Particles ......Page 418
15A.2 Electron Spin. The Exclusion Principle ......Page 421
Problems ......Page 424
16.1 Low-lying Energy Levels ......Page 427
16.2 Characteristic X-ray Lines ......Page 429
16.3 Electron Excitation of X-ray Levels ......Page 431
16.4 X-ray Doublets and Screening Constants ......Page 432
16.5 The Fluorescence Yield and the Auger Effect ......Page 436
16.6 Multiple Ionization of Inner Shells ......Page 437
16.7 X-ray Spectra and the Outer Part of the Atom ......Page 440
16.8 Refraction and Reflection of X-rays ......Page 442
Problems ......Page 444
17.1 Angular Momentum and the Selection Rules ......Page 447
17.2 Alkali-type Spectra ......Page 450
17.3 Fine Structure in Alkali Spectra ......Page 452
17.4 The Spectrum of Helium ......Page 457
17.5 Many-electron Wave Theory ......Page 459
17.6 LS or Russell-Saunders Coupling ......Page 461
17.7 LS Multiplets of Levels ......Page 463
17.8 Spacing of the LS Multiplet Levels ......Page 464
17.9 The Arc Spectrum of Mercury ......Page 465
17.10 Equivalent Electrons ......Page 468
17.11 Coupling of the jj Type ......Page 471
17.12 The Rreadth of Spectral Lines ......Page 474
Problems ......Page 477
18.1 Effects of a Magnetic Field on an Atom ......Page 479
18.2 The Normal Zeeman Effect ......Page 481
18.3 Electron Spin and the Lande g Factor ......Page 483
18.4 Zeeman Patterns of LS Multiplets in a Weak Field ......Page 485
18.5 The Paschen-Rack Effect ......Page 488
18.6 Zeeman Effect in a Huge Field ......Page 492
18.7 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment ......Page 494
18.8 Isotope Structure and Hyperfine Structure ......Page 496
18.9 The Stark Effect ......Page 501
Problems ......Page 502
19.1 Interatomic Forces ......Page 505
19.2 The Ionic Rond ......Page 506
19.3 The Hydrogen Molecule Ion ......Page 509
19.4 The Hydrogen Molecule and the Covalent Rond ......Page 512
19.5 Binding between Square Wells ......Page 513
19.6 Molecular Spectra ......Page 515
19.7 Rotation Spectra ......Page 517
19.8 Vibration-rotation Spectra ......Page 519
19.9 Molecular Quantum Stales ......Page 526
19.10 Electronic Rands ......Page 530
19.11 The Raman Effect ......Page 534
19.12 The Ammonia Inversion Spectrum ......Page 538
Problems ......Page 541
20.1 Statistics of Distinguishable Objects ......Page 545
20.2 Indistinguishable and Exclusive Particles ......Page 551
20.3 The Bose-Einslein Distribution ......Page 553
20.4 The Fermi- Dirac Distribution Law ......Page 555
20.5 Comparison of the Distribution Laws ......Page 557
20.6 The Specific Heats of Gases ......Page 559
20.7 Specific Heats of Solids ......Page 562
20.8 The Photon Gas ......Page 565
20.9 Homonuclear Molecules ......Page 566
Problems ......Page 572
21.1 Crystals ......Page 575
21.2 Binding in Solids ......Page 578
21.3 The Ionic Crystal ......Page 580
21.4 Covalent Binding ......Page 583
21.5 Metallic Binding ......Page 584
21.6 Metals and Insulators ......Page 588
21.7 Metallic Conduction ......Page 589
21.8 The Sommerfield Free-electron Model ......Page 592
21.9 Thermionic Emission ......Page 596
21.10 Metals in Contact ......Page 598
Problems ......Page 599
22.1 The Hall Effect ......Page 603
22.2 Electrons in a Periodic Lattice ......Page 606
22.3 Effective Mass ......Page 609
22.4 Brillouin Zones ......Page 612
22.5 The Fermi Surface ......Page 615
22.6 Density of States ......Page 617
22.7 Filled Bands and Holes ......Page 619
22.8 Transition Metals ......Page 621
Problems ......Page 622
23.1 Semiconducting Materials ......Page 625
23.2 Intrinsic Semiconductors ......Page 627
23.3 Conductivity ......Page 629
23.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors ......Page 631
23.5 The Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors ......Page 633
23.6 The p-n Junction ......Page 636
23.7 The p-n Rectifier ......Page 637
23.8 The Photovoltaic Effect ......Page 639
23.9 The Tunnel (or Esaki) Diode ......Page 641
23.10 Metal- Semiconductor Junctions ......Page 643
23.11 Thermoelectricity ......Page 645
23.12 The Transistor ......Page 646
Problems ......Page 648
24.1 Attenuation of a Photon Beam ......Page 651
24.2 Attenuation Processes ......Page 653
24.3 Absorption vs. Attenuation ......Page 659
24.4 Energy Loss of Charged Particles ......Page 662
24.5 The Stopping of Electrons ......Page 667
24.6 Cerenkov Radiation ......Page 669
24.7 Detection of Charged Particles ......Page 670
Problems ......Page 675
Chapter 25 The Nucleus 661 ......Page 677
25.1 Discovery of Artificial Transmutation ......Page 678
25.2 Discovery of the Neutron ......Page 680
25.3 Properties of Nuclei ......Page 684
25.4 Constituents of Nuclei ......Page 686
25.5 Masses and Binding Energies ......Page 688
25.6 Nuclear Forces ......Page 693
25.7 Induced Radioactivity ......Page 705
25.8 Nuclear Transformations with Artificially Accelerated Particles ......Page 707
25.9 Accelerators ......Page 709
25.10 General Features of Nuclear Reactions ......Page 716
25.11 Masses of Mirror Nuclides ......Page 723
25.12 Particle Groups ......Page 725
25.13 Nuclear Resonances ......Page 729
25.14 Liquid-drop Model ......Page 734
25.15 Neutron Reactions ......Page 736
25.16 Energy Levels of Nuclei ......Page 745
25.17 The Shell Model ......Page 749
25.18 The Collective Model ......Page 755
25.19 Discovery of Fission ......Page 756
25.20 Theory of Fission ......Page 758
25.21 Prompt Neutrons—Chain Reactions ......Page 760
25.22 Fusion ......Page 764
Problems ......Page 766
Appendix—Electronic Structure of Atoms 753 ......Page 769
Index 755 ......Page 771
cover......Page 1
