This newly revised and updated edition offers a current and complete introduction to the analysis and design of Electro-Optical (EO) imaging systems. The Third Edition provides numerous updates and several new chapters including those covering Pilotage, Infrared Search and Track, and Simplified Target Acquisition Model. The principles and components of the Linear Shift-Invariant (LSI) infrared and electro-optical systems are detailed in full and help you to combine this approach with calculus and domain transformations to achieve a successful imaging system analysis. Ultimately, the steps described in this book lead to results in quantitative characterizations of performance metrics such as modulation transfer functions, minimum resolvable temperature difference, minimum resolvable contrast, and probability of object discrimination.The book includes an introduction to two-dimensional functions and mathematics which can be used to describe image transfer characteristics and imaging system components. You also learn diffraction concepts of coherent and incoherent imaging systems which show you the fundamental limits of their performance. By using the evaluation procedures contained in this desktop reference, you become capable of predicting both sensor test and field performance and quantifying the effects of component variations. The book contains over 800 time-saving equations and includes numerous analyses and designs throughout. It also includes a reference link to special website prepared by the authors that augments the book in the classroom and serves as an additional resource for practicing engineers. With its comprehensive coverage and practical approach, this is a strong resource for engineers needing a bench reference for sensor and basic scenario performance calculations. Numerous analyses and designs are given throughout the text. It is also an excellent text for upper-level students with an interest in electronic imaging systems.
Author(s): Ronald Driggers, Melvin H. Friedman, John Devitt
Edition: 3
Publisher: Artech House
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 738
City: Boston
Introduction to Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Third Edition
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Imaging
1.2 Infrared and EO Systems
1.3 Wavelength Dependencies
1.4 Typical EO Scenario
1.5 Typical Infrared Scenario
1.6 Analytical Parameters
1.7 Sensitivity and Resolution
1.8 Linear Systems Approach
1.9 Summary
1.10 Guide to the References
References
Chapter 2
Mathematics
2.1 Complex Functions
2.2 Common One-Dimensional Functions
2.3 The 2-D Functions
2.4 Convolution and Correlation
2.5 The Fourier Transform
2.6 Fourier Transform Properties
2.7 Transform Pairs and Delta Function Properties
2.8 Probability
2.9 Important Examples
2.10 Guide to the References
References
Selected Bibliography
Software
Chapter 3
Linear Shift-Invariant Systems
3.1 Linear Systems
3.2 Shift Invariance
3.3 Basics of LSI Systems
3.4 Impulse Response
3.5 Transfer Function
3.6 System PSF and MTF Versus Component PSF and MTF
3.7 Spatial Sampling
3.8 Spatial Sampling and Resolution
3.9 Sampled Imaging Systems
3.10 Guide to the References
References
Selected Bilbiography
Chapter 4
Diffraction
4.1 Electromagnetic Waves
4.2 Coherence
4.3 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction from an Aperture
4.3.1 Fresnel Diffraction
4.3.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction
4.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Thin Lens
4.5 Thin Lens Optical System Diffraction PSF
4.6 Thin Lens Diffraction MTF
4.6.1 Modulation and MTF
4.6.2 Incoherent Diffraction MTF
4.6.3 Coherent Diffraction MTF
4.7 Calculation of Diffraction MTF
4.7.1 Circular Pupil: Coherent MTF
4.7.2 Circular Pupil: Incoherent MTF
4.8 Programs for Calculating Incoherent Diffraction MTF
4.9 Applications of Diffraction Theory
4.9.1 Frequency Analysis of Optical Systems
4.9.2 Application to Geometric Optics
4.9.3 PSF of Distributed Aperture
4.9.4 Optical Image Processing
4.9.5 Stellar Interferometry
4.9.6 Apodization
4.9.7 Detector MTF from the Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern
4.10 Light Goes Around Corners: The Poisson Spot
References
Chapter 5
Sources of Radiation
5.1 Radiometry and Photometry
5.1.1 Radiometric Units
5.1.2 Photometric Units
5.2 Infrared Targets and Backgrounds
5.2.1 Blackbody Radiation
5.2.2 Emissivity
5.2.3 Equivalent Differential Temperature (Delta T)
5.2.4 Apparent Differential Temperature (Apparent Delta T)
5.3 EO Targets and Backgrounds
5.3.1 External Sources
5.3.2 Contrast
5.4 Other Sensitivity Considerations
5.4.1 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
5.4.2 Color Considerations
5.5 Target and Background Spatial Characteristics
5.5.1 Bar Target Representation of Targets
5.5.2 Target Delta T and Characteristic Dimension
5.5.3 Summary of Target Characteristics
5.5.4 Clutter
5.5.5 Simulation of Target Characteristics
5.6 Typical Mid-Wave and Long-Wave Contrasts and Solar Effects
References
Selected Bibliography
Chapter 6
Atmospherics
6.1 Atmospheric Components and Structure
6.2 Atmospheric Transmission
6.3 Absorption
6.4 Scattering
6.5 Path Radiance
6.6 Turbulence
6.7 Atmospheric Modulation Transfer Function
6.8 Models and Tools
6.9 Model Background Discussion
6.10 Some Practical Considerations
References
Chapter 7
Optics
7.1 Light Representation and the Optical Path Length
7.2 Reflection and Snell’s Law of Refraction
7.3 The Thin Lens, Ray-Tracing Rules, and Gauss’s Equation
7.4 Spherical Mirrors
7.5 Modeling the Thick Lens
7.6 Vergence
7.7 Multiple-Lens Systems
7.8 FOV
7.9 Resolution
7.10 Aperture Stop, Pupils, and Rays
7.11 f-Number and Numerical Aperture
7.12 Telescopes and Angular Magnification
7.13 MTF
7.14 Aberrations
7.15 Optical Materials
7.16 Cold Stop and Cold Shield
7.17 A Typical Optical System
7.18 Diffraction Blur
References
Chapter 8
Detectors
8.1 Types of Detectors
8.1.1 Photon Detectors
8.1.2 Photoconductors
8.1.3 Photovoltaic
8.1.4 Photoemissive
8.1.5 Thermal Detectors
8.1.6 Bolometers
8.1.7 Pyroelectric Detectors
8.2 CCD and ROIC
8.2.1 CCD
8.2.2 Multiplexed Analog Readout
8.2.3 Column ADC ROIC or D-ROIC
8.3 Detector Sensitivity Analysis
8.3.1 Quantum Efficiency
8.3.2 Responsivity
8.3.3 Sensitivity
8.3.4 Detector Angular Subtense
8.3.5 FPA and Detector Noise (Including Detector 1/f Noise)
8.3.6 Dark Current and Rule’07
8.3.7 1/f Noise
8.3.8 Photon Shot Noise
8.3.9 FPA and ROIC Noise (Including Fixed Pattern Noise) in Staring Systems
8.3.10 BLIP
8.4 EO Systems: Staring and Scanning Configurations
8.4.1 Raster Scan Systems
8.4.2 Linear Scan and TDI
8.4.3 Staring Systems: Focal Plane Arrays
8.5 Detector Transfer Functions
8.6 EO Detectors: Materials and Technology
8.6.1 MWIR and LWIR Photon Detectors
8.6.2 Far Infrared: VLWIR
8.6.3 Uncooled Bolometer
8.6.4 Visible and NIR
8.7 New and Emerging Infrared Detector Technology
8.7.1 Ultra-Large-Format Arrays and Small Pitch
8.7.2 Dual-Band Detectors (Third Generation)
8.7.2 Dual-Band Detectors (Third Generation)
8.7.3 Direct Bond Hybridization
8.7.4 Advanced ROIC Technology and Digital Pixel
8.7.5 Next Generation Imagers
8.7.6 Avalanche Photodiodes, Laser Range Gating, and Active and PassiveDetectors
References
Chapter 9
Electronics
9.1 Detector Circuits
9.2 Conversion of Spatial and Temporal Frequencies
9.3 Electronics Transfer Function
9.4 Noise
9.4.1 Johnson Noise
9.4.2 1/f Noise
9.4.3 Shot Noise
9.5 MTF Boost Filter
9.6 Digital Filter MTF
9.7 CCDs
9.8 Uniformity Correction or NUC
9.9 Design and Construction of Camera Electronics
References
Chapter 10
Image Processing
10.1 Basics of Sampling Theory
10.2 Applications of Image Filtering
10.2.1 Localized Contrast Enhancement
10.2.2 Boost Filtering
10.2.3 Sensor Design Considerations
10.3 Super-Resolution Image Reconstruction
10.3.1 Image Acquisition: Microdither Scanner Versus Natural Jitter
10.3.2 Subpixel Shift Estimation
10.3.3 Image Reconstruction
10.3.4 Example and Performance Estimates
10.4 Image Fusion
10.4.1 Fusion Algorithms
10.5 Scene-Based NUC
10.6 Deep Learning
10.6.1 Super-Resolution
10.6.2 Contrast Enhancement
10.6.3 Image Fusion
10.6.4 Scene-Based NUC
10.7 Summary
References
Chapter 11
Displays, Human Perception, and Automatic Target Recognizers
11.1 Displays
11.2 CRTs
11.2.1 CRT Example Results
11.3 LEDs
11.4 LCDs
11.5 Plasma Displays
11.6 Emerging Display Technologies
11.7 Sampling and Display Processing
11.8 Human Perception and the Human Eye
11.9 MTF of the Eye
11.10 CTF of the Eye
11.11 Automatic Target Recognition
References
Chapter 12
Historical Performance Models
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Johnson Model Fundamentals
12.3 The MRT Model
12.4 The First FLIRs and Models
12.5 Model Improvements for Resolution and Noise
12.6 Incorporating Eye Contrast Limitations
12.7 Model Improvement to Add Sampling
12.8 Other Improvements Prior to the TTP Metric
12.9 The TRM3 Model
12.10 Triangle Orientation Discrimination (TOD)
12.11 Imager Modeling, Measurement, and Field Performance
References
Chapter 13
Contrast Threshold and TTP Metric
13.1 CTF of the Naked Eye
13.2 CTF for the Eye-Display System
13.3 Validation of Eye-Display CTF
13.4 Eye-Display Contrast Threshold Model
13.4.1 Eye-Display Contrast Threshold Model
13.4.2 Define Functions
13.4.3 Define Input Parameters
13.4.4 Run the Program
13.4.5 Comparison with Existing Models
13.5 TTP Metric and Range Performance Mode
13.6 Guide to the References
References
Appendix 13A
13A.1 Direct Calculation of CTFeye–disp,h
Chapter 14
EO and Infrared System Performance andTarget Acquisition
14.1 Sensitivity and Resolution
14.2 NETD
14.3 EO Noise and Noise Equivalent Irradiance
14.3.1 Noise Equivalent Irradiance
14.4 3-D Noise
14.5 MTF
14.6 MRTD (Including 2-D MRT)
14.6.1 2-D MRT
14.7 Target Acquisition with Limiting Frequency (Johnson’s N50)
14.8 System CTF
14.9 Target Acquisition with the Target Task Performance (TTP)Metric (and Vollmerhausen’s V50)
14.10 Target Sets
14.11 Classic ISR, NIIRS, and General Image Quality
14.11.1 NIIRS
14.11.2 GIQE Model
14.12 The Performance Benefits of Dual-Band Infrared Imagers
14.12.1 Dual-Band Imagers
14.12.2 Long-Range Target Detection and Identification
14.12.3 Imaging with Hot Targets in the FOV
14.12.4 Cold-Weather Performance
14.12.5 Imaging Through Turbulence
14.12.6 Imaging Through Fog-Oil Smoke
14.12.7 Target Contrast (Up Close)
14.12.8 ATR Performance
14.12.9 Motion Blur and Integration Time
14.12.10 Target Spectral Exploitation
14.12.11 Signal and Image Processing: Boost, Local Area Contrast
Enhancement
14.12.12 Imaging Through Fog, High Humidity, Rain, Haze, Smoke, and Dust
14.12.13 Discussion
14.13 Small Detector Infrared Systems
14.13.1 Small Detector Infrared System Fundamentals
14.13.2 Choosing Detector Array Dimensions for SPHD Sensors
14.13.3 Practical Benefits of LWIR SPHD Sensors
14.13.4 MWIR SPHD Sensors
14.13.5 MWIR SPFF Sensors
14.13.6 LWIR SPFF Sensors
14.13.7 Summary
14.14 Persistent Surveillance
References
Chapter 15
Simplified Target Acquisition Model
15.1 Introduction to the Simple Model
15.2 NVIPM
15.3 Simple Model Based on Fλ/d
15.4 Sensors
15.5 Prediction of R50
15.6 Probability as a Function of Range
15.7 Characteristic Dimension and V50
15.8 Discussion
References
Selected Bibliography
Chapter 16
Pilotage
16.1 Introduction to Pilotage
16.2 TTP with Scene Contrast
16.3 Vollmerhausen and Bui
16.4 Scene Contrast Temperature
16.5 Discussion
16.6 Conclusion
References
Selected Bibliography
Chapter 17
Infrared Search and Track
17.1 Introduction to IRST
17.2 IRST Systems
17.3 Signal Radiometry
17.4 PVF
17.5 Noise and Integration Time
17.6 NEI
17.7 Targets
17.7.1 Graybody Target
17.7.2 Differential Radiance or Intensity
17.7.3 High-Speed Targets
17.7.4 Broadband Intensity Models/Measurements
17.8 Atmospheric Background and Path Radiance
17.9 Broadband Example
17.10 Spectral Example
17.11 Optimization of System Performance
17.12 Scanned Versus Staring Systems
17.13 Discussion
17.14 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18
Search
18.1 Problem Definition
18.2 Introduction to Search Theory
18.3 Technique for Estimating Search Parameters and Their Uncertainties
18.4 Search Parameters and NVIPM
18.5 Time-Limited Search
18.6 FOR Search
18.7 Multiple Observers, Single Sensor, Unlimited Time, and Shared
Knowledge
18.8 Independent Search with Two Sensors, Unlimited Time, and
Shared Knowledge
18.9 Time-Dependent Search Parameters Search Model
18.10 Other Work
18.10.1 Neoclassical Search Model
18.11 Guide to References
References
Selected Bibliography
Appendix 18A: Time-Unlimited FOR Search
Appendix 18B: Detection Time and Probabilities with SharedInformation
18B.1 Useful Mathematical Result
18B.2 The Mean Time for the First Observer to Detect a Target Given nObservers and PÇ
18B.3 The Mean Time to Detect a Target with Two Observers Using TwoSensors
18B.4 PDF for Detection Time with Two Observers Using Two Sensors
Appendix 18C: Mathematica Search Code for TDSP Search Model
Chapter 19 Laboratory Measurements of Infrared
Imaging System Performance
19.1 Sensitivity
19.2 Resolution
19.3 Human Performance: MRTD
19.4 DMRT
19.5 Image Temporal Response and Stability/Drift
19.6 Operability Considerations
19.7 EO Test Instrumentation
19.8 Environmental Testing
References
List of Symbols
List of Acronyms
About the Authors
Index
