Introduction to Holography

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Section I: Optics
Chapter 1: Light Waves and Rays
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Description of Light Waves
1.3 Spatial Frequency
1.4 The Equation of a Plane Wave
1.5 Non-planar Wavefronts
1.6 Geometrical Optics
1.6.1 The Thin Lens
1.6.2 Spherical Mirror
1.6.3 Refraction and Reflection
1.7 Reflection, Refraction, and the Fresnel Equations
1.7.1 Reflection and Refraction
1.7.2 The Fresnel Equations
1.7.2.1 Electric Field Perpendicular to the Plane of Incidence
1.7.2.2 Electric Field Parallel to the Plane of Incidence
1.7.2.3 Anti-reflection Coatings
1.7.2.4 Total Internal Reflection and Evanescent Waves
1.7.2.5 Intensity Reflection and Transmission Ratios
1.8 Introduction to Spatial Filtering
1.8.1 Phase Contrast Imaging
Problems
Chapter 2: Physical Optics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Diffraction
2.2.1 The Diffraction Grating
2.2.1.1 Single Slit
2.2.1.2 Double Slit
2.2.1.3 The Diffraction Grating (Multiple Slits)
2.2.1.4 Resolution and Resolving Power
2.2.2 Circular Aperture
2.3 Diffraction and Spatial Fourier Transformation
2.4 Phase Effect of a Thin Lens
2.5 Fourier Transformation by a Lens
2.6 Fourier Transform Property of a Lens—A Physical Argument
2.7 Interference by Division of Amplitude
2.8 Coherence
2.8.1 Production of Light
2.8.2 The Bandwidth of Light Sources
2.8.3 Spatial Coherence
2.9 Polarized Light
2.9.1 Plane Polarized Light
2.9.2 Other Polarization States
2.9.3 Production of Linearly Polarized Light by Reflection and Transmission
2.9.4 Anisotropy and Birefringence
2.9.5 Birefringent Polarizers and Polarizing Beamsplitters
References
Problems
Section II: Principles of Holography
Chapter 3: Introducing Holography
3.1 Introduction: Difference between Two Spatial Frequencies
3.2 Recording and Reconstruction of a Simple Diffraction Grating
3.2.1 Amplitude Gratings
3.2.2 Phase Gratings
3.3 Generalised Recording and Reconstruction
3.4 A Short History of Holography
3.4.1 X-ray Diffraction
3.4.2 Diffraction and Fourier Transformation
3.4.3 Electron Microscopy and the First Holograms
3.4.4 Photographic Emulsions and Gabor Holography
3.5 Simple Theory of Holography
3.5.1 Holographic Recording
3.5.2 Amplitude Holograms
3.5.2.1 Gabor (In-Line) Holography
3.5.2.2 Off-Axis Holography
3.6 Phase Conjugacy
3.7 Phase Holograms
References
Problems
Chapter 4: Volume Holography
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Volume Holography and Coupled Wave Theory
4.2.1 Thick Holographic Diffraction Gratings
4.2.2 Light Waves in a Dielectric Medium
4.2.3 Light Waves in a Dielectric Medium with a Grating
4.3 Characteristics of Thick Holographic Gratings
4.3.1 Transmission Gratings
4.3.1.1 Phase Transmission Gratings
4.3.1.2 Q and ρ Parameters
4.3.1.3 Unslanted Amplitude Gratings
4.3.2 Unslanted Reflection Gratings
4.3.2.1 Unslanted Reflection Phase Gratings
4.3.2.2 Reflection Amplitude Gratings
4.4 Rigorous Coupled-Wave Theory
4.5 A Simpler Approach
4.5.1 Bandwidth
4.5.2 Diffraction Efficiency
References
Problems
Section III: Holography in Practice
Chapter 5: Requirements for Holography
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Coherence
5.3 The Michelson Interferometer
5.4 Lasers
5.5 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer, Etalon, and Cavity
5.6 Stimulated Emission and the Optical Amplifier
5.7 Laser Systems
5.7.1 Gas Lasers
5.7.1.1 The Helium-Neon Laser
5.7.1.2 Argon Ion Lasers
5.7.1.3 Krypton Ion Lasers
5.7.1.4 Helium-Cadmium Lasers
5.7.1.5 Exciplex Lasers
5.7.2 Solid State Lasers
5.7.2.1 Semiconductor Diode Lasers
5.7.2.2 Quantum Cascade Lasers
5.7.2.3 Doped Crystal Lasers
5.7.2.3.1 Ruby Lasers
5.7.2.3.2 Neodymium Yttrium Aluminium Garnet Lasers
5.7.2.3.3 Titanium Sapphire Lasers
5.7.3 Dye Lasers
5.8 Q-switched Lasers
5.9 Frequency Doubled Lasers
5.10 Free Electron Lasers
5.11 Mode Locking of Lasers
5.12 Spatial Coherence of Lasers
5.13 Laser Safety
5.14 Mechanical Stability
5.15 Thermal Stability
5.16 Checking for Stability
5.17 Resolution of the Recording Material
5.18 Good Practice in Hologram Recording
Problems
Chapter 6: Practical Recording Materials
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Silver Halide
6.2.1 Available Silver Halide Materials
6.2.2 Processing of Silver Halide to Obtain an Amplitude Hologram
6.2.3 Processing to Obtain a Phase Hologram – Rehalogenation
6.2.4 Processing to Obtain a Phase Hologram – Reversal Bleaching
6.2.5 Silver Halide Processing in Practice
6.3 Dichromated Gelatin
6.4 Thermoplastics
6.5 Photoresists
6.6 Self-processing Recording Materials
6.6.1 Photochromic and Photodichroic Materials
6.6.2 Photorefractives
6.6.3 Nonlinear Optical Materials
6.6.4 Photopolymers
6.6.4.1 Photopolymerisation Using Acrylamide Monomer
6.6.4.2 Mechanism of Hologram Formation in Photopolymer
6.6.4.3 Mathematical Models of Holographic Grating Formation in Acrylamide Photopolymer
6.6.4.3.1 The Two-way Diffusion Model
6.6.4.4 Single-beam Recording in Photopolymer
6.6.4.5 Advances in Photopolymers for Holographic Recording
6.6.5 Other Recording Materials
References
Problems
Chapter 7: Recording and Reconstruction in Practice
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Holographic Sensitivity
7.3 Non-linear Effects
7.3.1 Non-linearity in an Amplitude Hologram
7.3.2 Non-linearity in Phase Holograms
7.4 Grain Noise
7.4.1 Reduction in Fringe Contrast
7.4.2 Noise Gratings
7.4.3 Measurement of Noise Spectrum
7.5 The Speckle Effect
7.5.1 The Origin of Speckle
7.5.2 Speckle Size
7.5.3 Speckle Contrast
7.6 Signal-to-noise Ratio in Holography
7.7 Experimental Evaluation of Holographic Characteristics
7.7.1 Diffraction Efficiency
7.7.2 Shrinkage
7.8 Effects Arising from Dissimilarities between Reference Beams in Recording and Reconstruction
7.8.1 Phase Conjugation Effects
7.8.2 Reconstruction Using Non-Laser Light
References
Problems
Section IV: Applications
Chapter 8: Holographic Displays
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Single-beam Holographic Display
8.2.1 Spatial Filtering
8.3 Split-beam Holographic Displays
8.3.1 Control of Beam Ratio in Split-beam Holography
8.3.1.1 Use of Beamsplitters
8.3.1.2 Polarizing Beamsplitters and Halfwave Plates
8.4 Benton Holograms
8.4.1 Image Plane Holography
8.4.2 Single-step Image Plane Rainbow Holography
8.4.3 Blur in Reconstructed Images from Rainbow Holograms
8.5 White Light Denisyuk Holograms
8.6 Wide Field Holography
8.7 Colour Holograms
8.8 Edge-lit Holograms
8.9 Large-format Holographic Displays
8.10 Quantum Entanglement Holography
8.11 Dynamic Three-dimensional Displays
8.11.1 Light Field Displays
8.11.2 Holographic Displays
8.11.2.1 Photorefractive Polymer Systems
8.11.2.2 Spatial Light Modulator-based Dynamic Holographic Displays
8.11.2.2.1 Acousto-optic Modulation
8.11.2.2.2 Other SLM-based Systems
8.11.2.2.2.1 Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulators
8.11.2.2.2.2 Magneto-optic SLMs
8.11.2.2.2.3 Digital Micromirror Arrays
8.11.2.3 Metasurfaces
8.11.3 Tiled Holographic Displays Using LCSLMs
8.12 Further Developments in SLM-based Holographic Systems
8.12.1 Reduced Pixel Size
8.12.2 Scanning Systems
8.13 Dynamic Displays Using Speckle Fields
8.14 Cascading SLMs for Complex Amplitude
References
Problems
Chapter 9: Other Imaging Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Holographic Imaging of Three-Dimensional Spaces
9.3 Further Applications of Phase Conjugation
9.3.1 Lensless Image Formation
9.3.2 Dispersion Compensation
9.3.3 Distortion and Aberration Correction
9.4 Multiple Imaging
9.5 Total Internal Reflection and Evanescent Wave Holography
9.6 Evanescent Waves in Diffracted Light
9.6.1 Diffracted Evanescent Wave Holography
References
Problems
Chapter 10: Holographic Interferometry
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basic Principle
10.3 Phase Change Due to Object Displacement
10.4 Fringe Localisation
10.4.1 Pure Translation
10.4.2 In-plane Rotation
10.4.3 Out-of-plane Rotation
10.5 Live Fringe Holographic Interferometry
10.6 Frozen Fringe Holographic Interferometry
10.7 Compensation for Rigid Body Motion Accompanying Loading
10.8 Double Pulse Holographic Interferometry
10.9 Holographic Interferometry of Vibrating Objects
10.9.1 Time-averaged Holographic Interferometry
10.9.2 Live Holographic Interferometry of a Vibrating Object
10.9.3 Double Exposure with Phase Shift
10.9.4 Frequency Modulation of the Reference Wave
10.10 Stroboscopic Methods
10.11 Surface Profilometry
10.11.1 Surface Profiling by Change in Wavelength
10.11.2 Refractive Index Method
10.11.3 Change in Direction of Illumination
10.12 Phase Conjugate Holographic Interferometry
10.13 Fringe Analysis
10.14 Speckle Pattern Interferometry
10.14.1 Speckle Pattern Correlation Interferometry
10.14.2 Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
10.14.2.1 Fringe Analysis in Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
10.14.2.2 Vibration Studies Using Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
10.14.2.3 Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry Systems
10.14.3 Digital Speckle Shearing Interferometry
10.15 Digital Holographic and Speckle Interferometry Using Infrared Lasers
References
Problems
Chapter 11: Holographic Optical Elements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Diffraction Gratings
11.3 Spectral Filters
11.4 Lenses
11.4.1 HOEs for Light-emitting Diodes
11.4.2 Diffusers
11.5 Beamsplitters and Beam Combiners
11.5.1 Head-up Displays
11.5.2 Beamsplitter and Combiner for an ESPI System
11.5.3 Polarizing Beamsplitters
11.6 Scanners
11.7 Lighting Control and Solar Concentrators
11.8 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
11.9 Optical Interconnects
11.9.1 Holographic Interconnects
11.9.1.1 Fan-out Devices
11.9.1.2 Space Variant Interconnects
11.10 Holographic Projection Screens
11.11 Photonic Bandgap Devices
11.12 Holographic Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystal Devices
11.13 Waveguiding HOEs
11.14 Edge-lit HOEs
References
Problems
Chapter 12: Holographic Data Storage and Information Processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Holographic Data Storage Capacity
12.3 Bit Format and Page Format
12.4 Storage Media
12.5 Multiplexing
12.5.1 Angular Multiplexing
12.5.2 Peristrophic Multiplexing
12.5.3 Polytopic Multiplexing
12.5.4 Shift Multiplexing
12.5.5 Wavelength Multiplexing
12.5.6 Phase-coded Reference Beam Multiplexing
12.5.6.1 Diffuser-based Random Phase Coding
12.5.6.2 Deterministic Phase Coding
12.6 Phase-coded Data
12.7 Error Avoidance
12.8 Exposure Scheduling
12.9 Data and Image Processing
12.9.1 Associative Recall
12.9.2 Data Processing with Optical Fourier Transforms
12.9.2.1 Defect Detection
12.9.2.2 Optical Character Recognition
12.9.2.3 Joint Transform Correlation
12.9.2.4 Addition and Subtraction
12.9.2.5 Edge Enhancement
12.9.2.6 Image Recovery
12.10 Optical Logic
12.11 Holographic Optical Neural Networks
12.12 Magnetic Holographic Storage
12.13 Quantum Holographic Data Storage
References
Problems
Chapter 13: Digital Holography
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Spatial Frequency Bandwidth and Sampling Requirements
13.2.1 Bandwidth in Digital Fourier Holography
13.2.2 Bandwidth in Digital Fresnel Holography
13.3 Recording and Numerical Reconstruction
13.3.1 The Fresnel Method
13.3.2 The Convolution Method
13.3.3 The Angular Spectrum Method
13.4 Suppression of the Zero Order and the Twin Image
13.4.1 Removal of Zero-Order Term by Image Processing
13.4.2 Shuttering
13.4.3 Phase Shift Methods
13.4.4 Heterodyne Method
13.5 Improving the Resolution in Digital Holography
13.6 Digital Holographic Microscopy
13.6.1 Multiple Wavelength Method
13.6.2 Optical Coherence Tomography and Digital Holographic Microscopy
13.6.3 Optical Scanning and Non-scanning Digital Holographic Microscopy
13.6.4 Wavelength-coded Microscopy
13.6.5 Autofocusing in Reconstruction
13.7 Other Applications of Digital Holography
13.8 Digital Holographic Shearing Microscopy
13.9 Single-pixel Imaging and Single-pixel Digital Holography
13.9.1 Introduction
13.9.2 Single-pixel Imaging
13.9.3 Compressive Single-pixel Imaging
13.9.4 Imaging through Diffusing Media
13.9.5 Single-pixel Holography
References
Problems
Chapter 14: Computer-Generated Holograms
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Methods of Representation
14.2.1 Binary Detour – Phase Method
14.2.2 The Kinoform
14.2.3 Referenceless Off-axis Computed Hologram (ROACH)
14.3 Three-dimensional Objects
14.4 Optical Testing
14.4.1 Optical Testing Using Computer-generated Holograms
14.4.2 Computer-generated Interferograms
14.5 Optical Traps and Computer-generated Holographic Optical Tweezers
14.5.1 Optical Trapping
14.5.2 Holographic Optical Tweezers
14.5.3 Other Forms of Optical Traps
14.5.3.1 Bessel Mode
14.5.3.2 Helical Modes
14.5.4 Applications of Holographic Optical Tweezers
References
Problems
Chapter 15: Holography and the Behaviour of Light
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Theory of Light-in-Flight Holography
15.3 Reflection and Other Phenomena
15.4 Extending the Record
15.5 Applications of Light-in-Flight Holography
15.5.1 Contouring
15.5.2 Particle Velocimetry
15.5.3 Testing of Optical Fibres
15.5.4 Imaging through Scattering Media
References
Problems
Chapter 16: Polarization Holography
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Description of Polarized Light
16.3 Jones Vectors and Matrix Notation
16.4 Stokes Parameters
16.5 Photoinduced Anisotropy
16.6 Transmission Polarization Holography
16.6.1 Linearly Polarized Recording Waves
16.6.2 Circularly Polarized Recording Waves
16.6.2.1 Polarization Diffraction Grating Stokesmeter
16.6.3 Recording Waves with Parallel Linear Polarizations
16.7 Reflection Polarization Holographic Gratings
16.8 Photoanisotropic Recording Materials for Polarization Holography
16.8.1 Surface Relief
16.9 Applications of Polarization Holography
16.9.1 Holographic Display
16.9.2 Polarization Holographic Data Storage
16.9.3 Multiplexing and Logic
16.9.4 Electrically Switchable Devices
References
Problems
Chapter 17: Holographic Sensing
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Principles
17.3 Theory
17.3.1 Surface Relief Gratings
17.3.2 Volume Phase Transmission Holographic Gratings
17.3.3 Volume Phase Reflection Holographic Gratings
17.4 Sensors Based on Silver Halide and Related Materials
17.5 Photopolymer-based Sensors
17.5.1 Humidity, Temperature, and Pressure Sensing
17.5.1.1 Humidity
17.5.1.2 Hybrid Grating-Cantilever Systems for Humidity Sensing
17.5.1.3 Temperature
17.5.1.4 Pressure
17.5.2 Nanozeolite Doped Photopolymer Sensors
17.6 Other Holographic Sensors and Sensing Mechanisms
17.7 Sensing by Hologram Formation
17.8 Wavefront Sensing
17.8.1 Aberration Modes
17.8.2 Holographic Wavefront Sensing
17.8.3 Wavefront Sensing Using the Speckle Memory Effect
References
Problems
Chapter 18: Ultraviolet and Infrared Holography
18.1 Introduction
18.2 UV Holography
18.3 IR Holography
References
Chapter 19: Holographic Authentication and Encryption
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Authentication Using a Hologram
19.3 Authentication of Mass-produced Holograms
19.4 Mass Production of Serialised Holograms
19.5 Encryption of Single Holograms
19.6 SLM-based Encryption
19.7 Space-based Techniques
19.8 Phase Shift-based Decryption of Digital Holograms
References
Problem
Chapter 20: X-ray Holography
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Single Energy X-ray Holography
20.3 Multiple Energy X-ray Fluorescence Holography
20.4 Optical Components
20.4.1 Mirrors
20.4.2 Fresnel Zone Plates
20.4.3 Refractive Components
20.5 In-line (Gabor) X-ray Holography
20.6 Fourier Holography and Lensless Fourier Holography
References
Problems
Chapter 21: Electron and Neutron Holography
21.1 Introduction
21.2 The Transmission Electron Microscope
21.3 Holography using a TEM
21.4 Electron Holography and the Magnetic Aharonov-Bohm Effect
21.5 Neutron Holography
References
Chapter 22: Acoustic Holography
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Recording Materials and Methods
22.3 Hologram Plane Scanning
22.4 Applications of Acoustic Holography
22.4.1 Non-destructive Testing
22.4.2 Medical Imaging
22.4.3 Seismology
22.4.4 Holographic Acoustic Tweezers
References
Problems
Appendix A: The Fresnel-Kirchoff Integral
Appendix B: The Convolution Theorem
Index