Introduction to Biology (Zambak)

I. SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD . 6
A. WHAT IS SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. HOW DOES A SCIENTIFIC
PROBLEM ARISE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C. THE STAGES OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. Definition of the Problem . . . . . . . 7
2. Making Observations . . . . . . . . . . 7
3. Gathering Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Generating a Hypothesis . . . . . . . 8
5. Making Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Examination of the Hypothesis
(Experimentation) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Interpretation of Results . . . . . . . . 8
8. Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9. Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
D. AN EXAMPLE OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
II. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. THE BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY . . . . . . 13
1. Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3. Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Histology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7. Embryology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8. Cytology: “Cell Biology” . . . . . . . .14
9. Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10. Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11. Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
III. INSTRUMENTS USED IN
THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY . . . . 16
A. MICROSCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Compound (Light) Microscope . . 16
B. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . 17
C. GLASSWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
D. REAGENTS (Indicators) . . . . . . . . . . 18
IV. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION . . . . . . 20
A. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . 20
B. MULTICELLULAR ORGANIZATION . . . . 22
C. LIFE AND LIVING ORGANISMS . . . . . . 23
1. Chemical Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3. Energy Production (Cellular
Respiration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5. Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6. Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7. Irritability “Sensitivity” . . . . . . . . 25
8. Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9. Homeostasis (Internal Balance) . . 25
10. Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
V. BODY STRUCTURE
IN LIVING ORGANISMS . . . . . . . . . 27
1. BODY STRUCTURE IN MICROORGAN-
ISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2. BODY STRUCTURE IN FUNGI . . . . 28
3. PLANT BODY STRUCTURES . . . . 29
4. BODY SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS . . . . 32
A. REGULATORY SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . 32
1. The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . 32
2. Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B. SENSORY RECEPTION
(The Sense Organs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. Photoreceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2. Chemoreceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3. Mechanoreceptors . . . . . . . . . . . 36
C. TRANSPORT SYSTEM
(Circulatory System) . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
1. Open circulatory system (OCS) . 37
2. Closed circulatory system (CCS) .37
D. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 38
E. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
F. EXCRETORY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
G. LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS . . . . . . . . 42
VI. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
“SYSTEMATICS” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A. CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B. CLASSIFICATION OF
LIVING THINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
C. VIRUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
D. RICKETTSIAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
VII. KINGDOM MONERA . . . . . . . . . . 54
A. BACTERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1. Structure of bacteria . . . . . . . . . 54
2. Classification of bacteria . . . . . . 55
3. Reproduction In Bacteria . . . . . . 58
4. Endospore Formation in Bacteria . 59
B. Blue Green Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
VIII. KINGDOM PROTISTA . . . . . . . . . 62
A. ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS
(PROTOZOA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. Rhizopoda
(Root-footed protozoa) . . . . . . . . 63
2. Foraminifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3. Actinopoda
(Ray animalcules) . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4. Zoomastigina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5. Ciliophora (Ciliates) . . . . . . . . . . 64
6. Apicomplexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
B. PLANT-LIKE PROTISTS . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1. Dinoflagellata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2. Bacillariophyta (Diatoms) . . . . . . 65
3. Euglenophyta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4. Chlorophyta (Green Algae) . . . . . 67
5. Rhodophyta (Red algae) . . . . . . 70
6. Phaeophyta (Brown algae) . . . . . 70
C. FUNGI LIKE PROTISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Myxomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Oomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
IX. KINGDOM FUNGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A. FUNGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1. Zygomycota (Molds) . . . . . . . . . 74
2. Ascomycota
(Ascomycetes,sac Fungi) . . . . . . 76
3. Basidiomycota (Club Fungi) . . . . 77
4. Deuteromycota . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
B. LICHENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
X. KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANTS) . . . . 81
A. SEEDLESS PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1. Bryophyta (Land Mosses) . . . . . . 81
2. Pteridophyta (Ferns) . . . . . . . . . 82
B. SEED PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1. Gymnospermae . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Angiospermae (Flowering plants) 86
2.1. Monocotyledone . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2. Dicotyledones . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
XI. KINGDOM ANIMALAE (ANIMALS) . 92
A. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS . . . . . . 92
B. ANIMAL KINGDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1. Porifera (Sponges) . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Cnidaria (Coelenterates) . . . . . . . 95
3. Ctenophora (Comb jellies) . . . . . 97
4. Platyhelminthes
(Flat worms, Helmints) . . . . . . . . 97
5. Nemertea (Nemertins) . . . . . . . 100
6. Nematoda (Round worms) . . . . 100
7. Rotifera
(Rotifers:Wheel animals) . . . . . 101
8. Mollusca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9. Annelida(Annelids) . . . . . . . . . . 102
10. Arthropoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11. Echinodermata
(Spiny-skinned) . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12. Chordata (Chordates) . . . . . . . 105