Interventions in Pulmonary Medicine

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Basic Bronchoscopy Procedures
1: Tracheobronchial Anatomy
Trachea
Introduction
External Morphology
Internal Morphology
Mucous Layer
Blood Supply
Anatomo-Clinical Relationships
Bronchi
Main Bronchi
Bronchial Division
Left Main Bronchus (LMB)
Right Main Bronchus (RMB)
Endoscopic Vision of the Bronchial Tree and Anatomical Relationships
Blood Supply
References
2: Flexible Bronchoscopy
Introduction
History
Description
Indications and Contraindications
Absolute Contraindications
Relative Contraindications (Risk–Benefit Assessment)
Procedure Preparation
Technique of FB Procedure
Complications of FB Procedure
Basic Diagnostic Procedures
Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL)
Transbronchial Lung Biopsy (TBLB)
Transbronchial Needle Aspiration (TBNA)
Bronchial Brushings
Advanced Diagnostic Bronchoscopy
EBUS-TBNA
Radial Probe Endobronchial Ultrasound (RP-EBUS)
Ultrathin Bronchoscopy
Transbronchial Lung Cryobiobsy (TBLC)
Cone-Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT)-Guided Biopsy
Therapeutic Procedures Via FB
LASER Bronchoscopy
Electrocautery
Argon Plasma Coagulation (APC)
Cryotherapy
Photodynamic Therapy
Airway Stent Placement
Endobronchial Valve Placement
Conclusion
References
3: Ultrathin Bronchoscopy: Indications and Technique
Introduction and Definition of the Procedure
History and Historical Perspective
Indications and Contraindications
Indications of Ultrathin Bronchoscopy
Contraindications of Ultrathin Bronchoscopy
Description of the Equipment Needed
Procedure Description
Procedure Planning
Target Approximation
Position Verification
Sampling
Complications
Future Directions
Summary and Recommendations
References
4: Rigid Broncoscopy
Introduction and History
Overview of RB
Innovations
Ancillary Equipment
Applications and Contraindications
Rigid Bronchoscopy Applications
Laser Bronchoscopy
Tracheobronchial Prosthesis
Transbronchial Needle Aspiration (TBNA)
Rigid Bronchoscope in Other Treatments for Bronchial Obstruction
Mechanical Debridement
Pediatric Rigid Bronchoscopy
Tracheobronchial Dilatation
Foreign Bodies Removal
Rigid Bronchoscopy in Intensive Care Units (ICU)
Other Indications
Complications
The Procedure
Some Conclusions
References
5: Anesthesia for Interventional Bronchoscopic Procedures
Introduction and Definition of Anesthesia for Interventional Bronchoscopy
History and Historical Perspective
Indications and Contraindications
Preprocedural Evaluation and Preparation
Physical Examination
Procedure-Related Indications
Application of the Technique
Topical Anesthesia
Side Effects of Local Anesthetics
Anesthesia of the Nasal Mucosa and Nasopharynx
Anesthesia of the Mouth and Oropharynx
Superior Laryngeal Nerve Block
Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Block (RLN)
Conscious Sedation
Monitored Anesthesia Care (MAC)
General Anesthesia
Monitoring the Depth of Anesthesia
Description of the Equipment Needed
Interventional Bronchoscopy Suites
Airway Devices
Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA)
Endotracheal Tube (ETT)
Rigid Bronchoscope
Modes of Ventilation
Spontaneous Ventilation
Assisted Ventilation
Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation (NIV)
Positive Pressure Controlled Mechanical Ventilation
Jet Ventilation
Electronic Mechanical Jet Ventilation
Postprocedure Care
Special Consideration
Anesthesia for Peripheral Diagnostic and Therapeutic Bronchoscopy
Anesthesia for Interventional Bronchoscopic Procedures During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Summary and Recommendations
Conclusion
References
6: Bronchoscopy Education: New Insights
Background
Curricular Structure and Delivery
What Is a Bronchoscopy Curriculum?
Instructional Process and Defining Meaningful Learning Experiences
Tradition, Teaching Styles, and Beliefs
Bronchoscopy-Education-Related Research
The Bronchoscopy Education Project
Using Assessment Tools to Guide the Educational Process
The Ethics of Teaching
When Learners Teach: The Journey from Novice to Mastery and Back Again
The Future Is Now
References
7: Evaluation of Outcomes After Interventional Procedures
Interventional Procedure
Assessment of Flow–Volume Curve
Dyspnea
Assessment of Lateral Airway Pressure
Analysis of Pressure–Pressure Curve
Conclusions
References
Part II: Interventional Procedures During the COVID-19 Pandemic
8: Interventional Procedures During the COVID-19 Pandemics: Adaptations in the Interventional Pulmonology Department
Introduction
Adaptations of the IP Department
Administrative and Organizational Issues
Environmental Control
Optimization of Circuits
Personal Protective Equipment
Procedure Performance
Bronchoscopy in Nonintubated Patients
Bronchoscopy in Intubated Patients
Other Procedures in IP Unit
Summary and Recommendations
References
9: Bronchoscopy During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Introduction
Safety
Patient Safety
Provider Safety
Patient Selection and Screening
Lung Cancer Diagnosis and Staging
Bronchoscopy for Outpatients
Inpatients
Universal Screening of Asymptomatic Patients
COVID-19 Clearance
Bronchoscopy Procedure in COVID-19 Respiratory Failure
Bronchoscopy in the Non-intubated COVID-19 Patient
Bronchoscopy in Patients with Persistent Radiographic Abnormalities After COVID-19
Specimen Handling, Equipment Processing, and Room Turnover
COVID Clearance: A Role for Bronchoscopy
Long COVID: A Role for Bronchoscopy
Bronchoscopy and COVID: The Questions that Remain
Preparing for the Next Pandemic
References
10: Tracheostomy in COVID-19 Patients
Historical Perspective
Indications and Contraindications
Equipment Needed and Modifications in a Viral Pandemic
Procedural Technique and Modifications
Evidence-Based Review
Summary and Recommendations
References
Part III: Tracheobronchial Obstructions
11: Laser Bronchoscopy in Tracheobronchial Obstructions
Introduction
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
Treatment
History and Historical Perspectives
Indications and Contraindications
Benign and Malignant Tumors
Tumors with Uncertain Prognosis
Inflammatory Disease
Description of the Equipment Needed
Application of the Technique
Evidence Based Review
Summary and Recommendations
References
12: Cryotherapy and Cryospray
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Equipment
Mechanism of Action
Techniques and Application
Cryoadhesion
Indications
Cryorecanalization
Cryoadhesion and Foreign Body Removal
Cryoadhesion and Mucus Plugs/Blood Clot Retrieval
Endobronchial Cryobiopsy
Transbronchial Cryobiopsy for Lung Cancer
Safety Concerns and Contraindications
Cryoablation
Indications
Evidence
Safety Concerns and Contraindications
Cryospray
Indications
Evidence
Safety Concerns and Contraindications
Advantages of Cryotherapy
Limitations
Summary and Recommendations
Future Research Directions
References
13: Brachytherapy
Introduction and Definition of the Procedure
History and Historical Perspective
Description of the Equipment Needed
Indications and Contraindications
Application of the Technique
Evidence-Based Review
Adjuvant Treatment
Palliative Treatment
Definitive Treatment
Complications
Summary and Recommendations
References
14: Photodynamic Therapy
Introduction
Photosensitizers
First-Generation Photosensitizers
Second-Generation Photosensitizers
N-Aspartyl Chlorin e6 (NPE6) (Talaporfin Sodium, Laserphyrin®), Meiji Seika, Tokyo, Japan
M-Tetrahidroxofenil Cloro (mTHPC) (Foscan®)
Third Generation of Photosensitizers
PDT Reaction
Tumor Damage Process
Procedure
Indications
Curative PDT Indications
Palliative PDT Indications
Contraindications
Applications of PDT
Rationale for Use in Early-Stage Lung Cancer
PDT Results in Early-Stage Lung Cancer
Application of PDT in Advanced Lung Cancer
Rationale
PDT vs. Nd-YAG Laser Therapy for Advanced-Stage Non-small Cell Lung Cancer
PDT in Combination with Other Techniques for Advanced-Stage Non-small Cell Lung Cancer
Commentary
Complementary Endoscopic Methods for PDT Applications
Clinical Applications of New Sensitizers
New Perspectives
Other PDT Applications
Conclusions
References
15: Benign Airways Stenosis
Introduction and Definition
Etiology
Congenital Tracheal Stenosis
Iatrogenic
Infectious
Idiopathic Tracheal Stenosis
Bronchial Stenosis Post-lung Transplantation
Distal Bronchial Stenosis
Diagnosis Methods
Patient History
Imaging Techniques
Bronchoscopy
Pulmonary Function Test
Classification of Benign Tracheal Stenosis
Treatment
Endoscopic Treatment
Dilatation
Laser Therapy
Cryotherapy, Electrocautery, and Argon Plasma Coagulation
Stents
How to Proceed
Stent Placement
Placing a Montgomery T Tube
The Rule of Twos for Benign Tracheal Stenosis (Fig. 15.23)
Surgery
Summary and Recommendations
References
16: Endobronchial Prostheses
Introduction
Historical Perspective and Emerging Concepts in Airway Stenting
Indications
Extrinsic Compression
Intraluminal Obstruction
Postoperative Tracheobronchial Stenosis (POTS)
Mixed Obstruction: Malignant Central Airway Obstruction
Stump Fistulas
Esophago-respiratory Fistulas (ERF)
Expiratory Central Airway Collapse
Physiologic Rationale for Airway Stent Insertion
Stent Selection Criteria
Technique and Equipment
Stent-Related Complications
Granulation Tissue
Stent Fracture
Stent Associated Lower Respiratory Infection and Mucus Obstruction
Migration
Contraindications
Follow-Up and Patient Education
Summary and Recommendations
References
Part IV: Lung Cancer, General Considerations
17: Lung Cancer Screening and Incidental Lung Nodules
Introduction
Lung Cancer Screening: Historical Review
Benefits and Risks of Lung Cancer Screening
Overdiagnosis
False Positives
Radiation
Risk of Complications
Lung Cancer Screening: Eligibility Criteria
Lung Cancer Screening Around the World
Incidental Lung Nodules
Management of Lung Nodules
Lung Cancer Screening and Incidental Findings
References
18: Tissue Acquisition in Patients with Suspected Lung Cancer: Techniques Available and Sampling Adequacy for Molecular Testing
Introduction
History and Historical Perspective
Minimally Invasive Procedures
Mediastinoscopy
Convex-Probe Endobronchial Ultrasound-Guided Transbronchial Needle Aspiration (EBUS-TBNA)
Endoscopic Ultrasound Guided Fine Needle Aspiration (EUS-FNA)
Conventional Transbronchial Needle Aspiration (TBNA)
Radial-Probe EBUS-Guided Procedures
Navigational Bronchoscopy-Guided Procedures
Image-Guided Transthoracic Needle Biopsy
CT-Guided Transthoracic Biopsy
Fluoroscopy-Guided Transthoracic Biopsies
US-Guided Transthoracic Biopsy
Thoracentesis and Pleural Biopsy
Thoracentesis
Pleural Biopsy
Surgical or Medical Thoracoscopy
Image-Guided Pleural Biopsy
Closed Pleural Biopsy
Image-Guided Biopsies for Extrathoracic Metastases
Sputum Cytology: A Noninvasive Method
Tissue Acquisition, Handling and Processing
Implications of Tissue Acquisition
Guideline Recommendations for Tissue Acquisition in Mediastinal Staging
Differences in Sample Acquisition and Processing: Cytology Versus Histology
Different Techniques in Genotyping
Methods to Overcome Challenges in Tissue Acquisition and Genotyping
Rapid on-Site Evaluation (ROSE)
Sensitive Genotyping Assays
Liquid Biopsy
Summary, Recommendations and Highlights
References
19: The Newly Proposed Lung Cancer TNM Classification: Review and Clinical Implications
History
Data Source and Methodology
Proposal for the Revision of T Descriptors
Tumor Size
Involvement of the Main Bronchus
Involvement of the Diaphragm
Atelectasis/Pneumonitis
Ground Glass/Lepidic Features and Pneumonic Type Tumors
Summary of “Proposed” T Changes for the Eighth Edition of the TNM Classification of Lung Cancer
Proposal for the Revision of N Descriptors
Nodal Staging
Summary of “Proposed” N Changes for the Eighth Edition of the TNM Classification of Lung Cancer
Proposal for the Revision of M Descriptors
Summary of “Proposed” M Changes for the Eighth Edition of the TNM Classification of Lung Cancer
Proposal for the Revision of Stage Groupings
Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC)
Discussion
Methodology
T Descriptors
N Descriptors
M Descriptors
Summary
References
Part V: Diagnosing and Staging of Lung Cancer
20: Bronchoscopy Role in the Evaluation of Peripheral Pulmonary Lesions: An Overview
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Systems of Guidance: Methods and Results
Fluoroscopy
Radial EBUS Mini Probe (rEBUS)
Ultrasound Bronchoscope (EBUS)
Virtual Bronchoscopy
Electromagnetic Navigation Bronchoscopy (EMN)
Trans-Parenchymal Access
Cone Beam CT (CBCT)
Lung Vision
Sampling Instruments
Rapid On-Site Cytological Evaluation (ROSE)
Conclusions
References
21: Early Lung Cancer: Methods for Detection
Introduction and Definition of the Procedure
History and Historical Perspective
Autofluorescence Bronchoscopy (AFB)
Narrow Band Imaging (NBI)
High Magnification Bronchovideoscope (HMB)
Dual Red Imaging (DRI)
Endobronchial Ultrasound (EBUS)
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
Indications and Contraindications
Description of the Equipment Needed
Autofluorescence Bronchoscopy (AFB)
Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy and Endocytoscopy
Raman Spectrophotometry
Application of the Technique
Autofluorescence Imaging and Optical Coherent Tomography
Supplemental Technology for Diagnostic Bronchoscopy
Evidence-Based Review
Summary and Recommendations, Highlight of the Developments During the Last Three Years (2013 on)
References
22: Optical Coherence Tomography: A Review
Introduction
History and Historical Perspective
Endoscopic AF-OCT System
Preclinical Studies
Clinical Studies
Lung Cancer
Asthma
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Airway and Lumen Calibration
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Future Applications
Summary
References
23: Endobronchial Ultrasound
History and Historical Perspective
The Basics of Endobronchial Ultrasound
Radial Probe Endobronchial Ultrasound
Description of the Equipment and Technique
Equipment
Technique
Indication, Application, and Evidence
Convex Probe Ultrasound
Description of the Equipment and Technique
Equipment
Technique
Indication, Application, and Evidence
CP-EBUS for Non-malignant Mediastinal or Hilar Adenopathy
CP-EBUS for Malignant Mediastinal or Hilar Adenopathy
CP-EBUS for the Staging of Non-small Cell Lung Cancer
CP-EBUS for Restaging NSCLC After Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
CP-EBUS for Biomarker Testing
Complications
Summary
References
24: Electromagnetic Navigation: A Review
Introduction
What Is Electromagnetic Navigation?
SuperDimension Navigation System (EMN-SD)
Computerized Tomography
Computer Interphase
The Edge Catheter: Extended Working Channel (EWC)
Procedural Steps
Planning
Identification of the Target
Detecting Anatomical Landmarks
Pathway Planning
Saving the Plan and Exiting
Registration
Real-Time Navigation
SPiN System Veran Medical Technologies (EMN-VM)
Procedure
Planning
Navigation
Biopsy
Diagnostic Yield and Results of EMN-Guided TBBx
Electromagnetic Guidance Transthoracic Needle Aspiration (ETTNA)
Therapeutic Interventions of EMN System
Complications
Limitations
Summary
References
25: Cone Beam Computed Tomography-Guided Bronchoscopy
Introduction
Technical Review: The Practice of the Art
Cone-Beam CT Versus Multidetector CT
Image Acquisition
Hardware
Practical Considerations
Radiation Dose
Limitations and Challenges
Literature Review: The State of the Art
Mobile CT Studies
Limitations of the Literature
Future Directions
Conclusion
References
26: Robotic Assisted Bronchoscopy
Historical Perspective
Description and Design
The Monarch Platform (Auris Health, Inc. Redwood City, CA)
The Ion Robotic Endoluminal System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA)
Procedure and Technique
Evidence-Based Review
Safety and Feasibility
Diagnostic Yield
Monarch RAB
Ion Endoluminal Robotic System
Therapeutic Robotic-Assisted Bronchoscopy
Summary
References
27: Mediastinoscopy, Its Variants and Transcervical Mediastinal Lymphadenectomy
Introduction and Definition of the Procedure
History and Historical Perspective
Indications and Contraindications
Description of the Equipment Needed
General
Specific
Application of the Technique
Preoperative Care
Patient’s Position and Operative Field
Incision and Initial Dissection
Palpation
Insertion of the Mediastinoscope and Mediastinal Inspection
Biopsy
Control of Haemostasis and Closure
Postoperative Care
Complications
Technical Variants
Extended Cervical Mediastinoscopy
Mediastinoscopic Biopsy of Scalene Lymph Nodes
Inferior Mediastinoscopy
Mediastino-Thoracoscopy
Transcervical Mediastinal Lymphadenectomies
Video-Assisted Mediastinoscopic Lymphadenectomy
Transcervical Extended Mediastinal Lymphadenectomy
Evidence-Based Review
Conventional Mediastinoscopy Versus Video-Mediastinoscopy
Staging Values of the Different Techniques
Summary and Recommendations
References
28: Lung Cancer Staging Methods: A Practical Approach
Introduction
Case 1
Pleura and Pleural Effusion
Adrenal and Hepatic Metastases
Brain
Bone
Case 1 Continued
Biomarkers
Case 1 Concluded
Case 2
Chest X-Ray
Computerized Tomography
Positive Emission Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Endobronchial Ultrasound with Transbronchial Needle Aspiration
Navigational and Robotic Bronchoscopy
Transthoracic Needle Aspiration
Transbronchial Needle Aspiration
Endoscopic Ultrasound with Needle Aspiration
Combined EUS-FNA and EBUS-TBNA
Case 2 Concluded
Case 3
Standard Cervical Mediastinoscopy
Extended Cervical Mediastinoscopy
Anterior Mediastinoscopy
Video-Assisted Thoracic Surgery
Surgical vs Minimally Invasive Techniques
Case 3 Concluded
Case 4
Summary
References
Part VI: Pleural Conditions
29: Pleural Anatomy
Pleural Embryonic Development
Pleural Molecular Biology During Embryogenesis
Pleural Histology
Mesothelial Cells, Characteristics, and Function
Cytological Characteristics
Mesothelial Cells Functions
Pleural Space Defense Mechanism
Pleura Macroscopic Anatomy
Visceral Pleura (Pleura Visceralis or Pulmonalis)
Parietal Pleura (Pleura Parietalis)
Mediastinal Parietal Pleura (Mediastinalis)
Costal Parietal Pleura (Costalis)
Diaphragmatic Parietal Pleura (Diaphragmatic)
Pleural Cavity (Cavitas Thoracis)
Pleural Apex or Superior Pleural Sinus [12–15]
Anterior Costal-Phrenic Sinus or Cardio-Phrenic Sinus
Posterior Costal-Phrenic Sinus
Cost-Diaphragmatic Sinus or Lateral Cost-Phrenic Sinus
Fissures18
Pleural Vascularization
Arterial and Venous Irrigation [19, 20]
Parietal Pleura Lymphatic Drainage
Visceral Pleura Lymphatic Drainage
Pleural Innervation
References
30: Chest Ultrasound
Introduction
The Technique
The Normal Thorax
Chest Wall Pathology
Pleural Pathology
Pleural Effusions
Pleural Thickening
Pneumothorax
Pulmonary Pathology
Evaluation of the Diaphragm
Extrathoracic Lymph Nodes
Intervention and Therapeutics Guided by Chest Ultrasound
COVID and Chest Ultrasound
Conclusions
References
31: Overview of the Spectrum of Chest Tubes with a Focus on Indwelling Pleural Catheters: Disease-Specific Selection
Introduction
History of Chest Tubes
Overview of Chest Tubes
Contraindications for Chest Tube Placement
Chest Tube Procedural Technique
Complications of Chest Tube Placement
Special Considerations
Pneumothorax
Empyema
Hemothorax
Malignant Pleural Effusion
Chest Tube Size Considerations
Complications and Troubleshooting Chest Tubes
Pleural Drainage Systems
History of and Introduction to Indwelling Pleural Catheters
Indications and Contraindications for IPC Placement
IPC Procedural Technique and Necessary Equipment
Complications of IPC Placement Procedure
Special Considerations
Malignant Pleural Effusion
Non-expandable Lung
Non-malignant Pleural Effusion
Chylothorax
Pleurodesis
Follow-Up and IPC Removal
IPC-Related Complications and Management
Competency and Training
Summary
References
32: Empyema Thoracis
Introduction and Classification
Historical Perspectives
Incidence
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Presentation
Radiologic Evaluation
Biochemical Analysis
Microbiology
Non-operative Management
Prognostication
Surgical Management
Survivorship
Summary and Recommendations
References
33: Management of Malignant Pleural Effusions
Definition and Pathogenesis
Clinical Manifestation, Imaging Studies, and Diagnosis
Management of Malignant Pleural Effusions
Evaluation
Initial Intervention
Pleural Interventions for Recurrent Symptomatic MPE
Especial Circumstances
References
34: Medical Thoracoscopy
Introduction
Diagnostic Approach to Pleural Effusions
Diagnostic Indications for Medical Thoracoscopy
Lung Cancer
Mesothelioma
Other Tumors
Tuberculosis
Therapeutic Indications
Pleurodesis for Malignant Pleural Effusion
Pleurodesis of Pneumothorax
Thoracoscopic Drainage
Drug Delivery
Procedural Safety and Contraindications
Equipment
Procedure
Pre-procedural Preparations and Considerations
Procedural Technique [32]
Medical Thoracoscopy Versus VATS
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Interventional Bronchoscopy for Specific Conditions
35: Endoscopic Methods for Lung Volume Reduction
Introduction and Definition of the Procedure
Historical Perspective
Indications and Contraindications
Description of the Equipment Needed
Evidence-Based Review
Endobronchial Valves
Airway Bypass Tracts
Biologic/Polymer Lung Volume Reduction
Coils
Other Methods of ELVR
Summary and Recommendations
References
36: Bronchial Thermoplasty
Introduction
Mechanism of Action
Efficacy and Safety
Trials
Short Term: Three- to Five-Year Studies
Long Term: Ten-Year Study
Patient Selection
Bronchial Thermoplasty Procedure
Equipment
Pre-procedure
Bronchoscopy
Post-procedure
Conclusion
References
37: Bronchoscopy Role in Interstitial Lung Disease
Introduction
Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL)
Technical Aspects of BAL Procedure
ILD Cell Patterns and Diagnosis from BAL
Transbronchial Lung Biopsy: A New Era Introducing the Cryobiopsy
Technical Advises for Conventional TLB and TLB-C in ILD
Future Directions
Summary and Recommendations
References
38: Interventional Pulmonology in the Pediatric Population
Introduction
Complex Problems and Multidisciplinary Approaches
The Pediatric Airway
Advanced Diagnostic Procedures
Endobronchial Ultrasound
Virtual Navigational Bronchoscopy
Cryobiopsy
Therapeutic Procedures
Dilation Procedures
Thermal Techniques
Mechanical Debridement
Endobronchial Airway Stents
Metallic Stents
Silastic Stents
Novel Stents
Endobronchial Valves
Bronchial Thermoplasty
Pediatric IP and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Discussion
References
39: Aero-Digestive Fistulas: Endoscopic Approach
Introduction
Etiology
Congenital ADF
Malignant ADF
Cancer Treatment-Related ADF
Benign ADF
Iatrogenic ADF
Diagnosis
Treatment Options
Endoscopic Techniques
Stents
Clinical Results
Stent Complications
Other Available Stents
Other Endoscopic Methods
Summary and Recommendations
References
40: Foreign Bodies in the Airway: Endoscopic Methods
Introduction
Anatomy and Physiology of Swallowing
Upper Airway Embryological Development and Anatomy
Functional Physiology of Swallowing
Upper Airway Protective Reflexes
Epidemiology and Risk Factors
Types of Foreign Bodies
Organic
Inorganic
Mineral
Miscellaneous
Clinical Presentation
Acute FB
Retained FB
Radiologic Findings
Bronchoscopy
Airway Management
Rigid Vs. Flexible Bronchoscopy
Retrieval Procedure
Instruments
Grasping Forceps
Baskets
Balloons
Suction Instruments
Ablative Therapies
Cryotherapy
Laser Therapy
Electrocautery and APC
Surgical Management
Complications
Bleeding and Hemoptysis
Distal Airway Impaction
Iron Pill Aspiration
Follow-Up and Sequelae
Conclusion
References
41: Hemoptysis, Endoscopic Management
Definition
Etiology of Hemoptysis
Vascular Origin of Hemoptysis
History and Historical Perspective
Indications of Bronchoscopy in Hemoptysis
Diagnostic Bronchoscopy
Therapeutic Bronchoscopy
Description of the Equipment
Application of the Technique
General Measures
Protection of the Airway
Therapeutic Bronchoscopy
Evidence-Based Review
Summary
Recommendations
References
Part VIII: Interventional Pulmonary Medicine – History And Future Perspective
42: History of Bronchoscopy – The Evolution of Interventional Pulmonology
History
“The Glottiscope” (1807)
“The Esophagoscope” (1895)
“Rigid Bronkoscopie”: From the Era of Gustav Killian (1876–) and Chevalier Jackson (1904–)
The Rigid Bronchoscope (1897–)
The Flexible Bronchoscope (1968–)
Transbronchial Lung Biopsy (1972) (Fig. 42.7)
Flexible Transbronchial Needle Aspiration (1978–)
Laser Therapy (1981–)
Endobronchial Argon Plasma Coagulation (APC) (1994–)
Endobronchial Stents (1990–)
Bronchoscopy in Lung Transplantation (1992–)
Radial Probe Ultrasound (1992–) (Fig. 42.9)
Convex Probe Endobronchial Ultrasound (2004–)
Electromagnetic Navigation (2003–)
Bronchial Thermoplasty (2006–)
Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction (2003)
Endobronchial Microwave Therapy (2004–)
Endoscopic Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography and Autofluorescence Imaging (DOCT-AFI) System (2014–) [56]
American Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology (AABIP) and Journal of Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology (JOBIP) (1992–)
References
Index