International Trade and the Protection of the Environment

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Cases, Awards and Reports
Table of Abbreviations
Introduction
1: Trade and Environment Within the GATT
1.1 Article I. Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment
1.2 Article III. National Treatment
1.2.1 Article III.2. Internal Taxes and Charges
1.2.2 Article III.4. ‘Laws, Regulations and Requirements’
1.3 Article XI. Quantitative Restrictions on Imports
1.4 Article XX
1.4.1 US–Reformulated Gasoline
1.4.2 US–Shrimp/Turtle
1.4.3 EC–Asbestos
1.5 Article XXIII:1(b)
1.6 The WTO Agreements and MEAs
1.6.1 Jurisdictional Overlap
1.6.2 Substantive Conflict
2: The WTO Side Agreements (1). The TBT and SPS Agreements
2.1 The TBT Agreement
2.2 The SPS Agreement
2.2.1 EC–Beef Hormones
2.2.2 Australia–Salmon
2.2.3 Japan Varietals
3: Genetically Modified Organisms and The WTO Agreements
3.1 The Cartagena Protocol
3.2 Regulation of GMOs Within The EU
3.3 EC–Biotech
3.4 The Aftermath of the Decision
3.5 Conclusion
3.5.1 Jurisdictional Overlap Between the WTO Agreements and MEAs
3.5.2 Jurisdictional Overlap Between the WTO Agreements
3.5.3 The Ability of Members to Base Environmental Regulation on PPM Criteria
3.5.4 The Evidential Threshold Applicable to the Justification of Measures on Grounds of Health or Environmental Protection
3.5.5 The Administrative Obligations Imposed on Members in Designing and Implementing Measures
4: The WTO Side Agreements (2). GATS, TRIMS and TRIPS
4.1 GATS
4.1.1 Article VI. Domestic Regulation
4.1.2 Article XVI. Market Access
4.1.3 Article XVII. National Treatment
4.1.4 General Exceptions
4.2 TRIMS
4.3 The TRIPS Agreement. The Impact of IP Rights on Environmental Protection
4.3.1 Farmers’ Rights
4.3.2 Traditional Knowledge
4.3.3 Pharmaceuticals
5: Trade and The Environment Within the EC
5.1 Quantitative Restrictions on Imports and Exports. Articles 28 and 29
5.2 Harmonisation and National Measures. The General Principles
5.2.1 Article 95. Internal Market Harmonisation
5.2.2 Article 175. Environmental Harmonisation
5.3 The Two Justifications for Violating Arts 28 and 29
5.3.1 Article 30
5.3.2 The ‘Rule of Reason’ and Mandatory Requirements
5.3.3 Proportionality
5.4 Distinctly and Indistinctly Applicable Measures
5.5 Extra Territoriality
5.6 MEAs and The EC
5.7 Conclusion
6: Investor Protection and Environmental Regulation (1). Customary International Law and The European Convention on Human Rights
6.1 Customary International Law on Expropriation
6.1.1 Defining Expropriation
6.1.2 What Property can be Subject to an Expropriation?
6.1.3 Causation
6.1.4 Assessing the Quantum of an Expropriation Claim
6.2 The European Convention on Human Rights. Article 1 of the First Protocol
6.2.1 ‘Deprivation of Possessions’ Claims
6.2.2 ‘Control of Use’ Claims
7: Investor Protection and Environmental Regulation (2). NAFTA, Chapter Eleven
7.1 Threshold Issues of Definition
7.2 Articles 1102 and 1103 – National Treatment and Most-Favoured-Nation Principles
7.3 Treatment in Accordance With International Law – Article 1105
7.3.1 Initial Interpretations of Art 1105
7.3.2 The Free Trade Commission’s Interpretation of Art 1105
7.3.3 Subsequent Interpretations of Art 1105
7.4 Performance Requirements – Article 1106
7.5 Article 1110. Expropriation
7.5.1 What Constitutes Expropriation or a Measure ‘Tantamount to Expropriation’?
7.6 Exceptions to Chapter Eleven Obligations
7.6.1 Article 1114. Environmental Measures
7.6.2 Article 1112
7.6.3 Article 103
7.6.4 Article 104
7.7 Quantum
7.8 Recent US Responses to NAFTA Jurisprudence
7.9 Conclusion
8: Multinational Corporations and Environmental Liability (1). US Litigation: Jurisdictional Issues
8.1 Establishing Jurisdiction Over the Defendant
8.2 Forum Non Conveniens
8.2.1 Identifying an Available Alternative Forum
8.2.2 Balancing the Private Interest and Public Interest Factors
8.2.3 Forum Non Conveniens and Environmental Claims
8.2.4 Forum Non Conveniens and Human Rights Claims
8.3 Other Grounds for Declining Jurisdiction
8.3.1 Foreign Sovereign Immunity
8.3.2 Indispensible Parties
8.3.3 Act of State
8.3.4 Political Question
8.3.5 Comity
9: Multinational Corporations and Environmental Liability (2). US Litigation: Substantive Law
9.1 Claims Under the ATCA
9.1.1 Environmental Claims and ATCA
9.1.2 Private Actor Liability Under International Law
9.1.3 Private Actor Liability Under s 1983
9.2 Other Statutory Avenues for Human Rights Claims
9.2.1 Torture Victims Protection Act 1991
9.2.2 USC, s 1331
9.2.3 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organisations Act
9.3 Tort Claims
9.3.1 Alter Ego
9.3.2 Agency
9.3.3 Single Economic Entity
9.3.4 Direct Liability
9.4 The Chain of Attribution in the Unocal Litigation
9.5 Applicable Law
10: Actions Against Multinational Corporations Before English Courts
10.1 Establishing Jurisdiction
10.2 Declining Jurisdiction
10.2.1 Forum Non Conveniens
10.2.2 Act of State
10.2.3 Sovereign Immunity
10.3 Tort Liability
10.3.1 Derivative Liability. ‘Piercing the Veil’
10.3.2 Derivative Liability. Agency
10.3.3 Direct Liability
10.3.4 How Would the English Courts Have Dealt With the Bhopal Disaster?
10.3.5 ‘Soft Law’ International Instruments and Direct Liability
10.4 Civil Liability in Respect of Violations of Customary International Law
10.5 Applicable Law
10.6 Conclusion
11: Alternative Approaches to Transnational Pollution
11.1 International Regulation of Ship-Source Pollution
11.1.1 MARPOL
11.1.2 Enforcement Jurisdiction Under International Law
11.2 Civil Liability Conventions on Oil Pollution
11.2.1 Liability Regime
11.2.2 Recoverable Damage
11.2.3 Jurisdiction
11.2.4 Compulsory Insurance
11.3 Other International Civil Liability Conventions
11.4 EC Environmental Liability Directive 20004
11.5 Conclusion
Index