International Law for Energy and the Environment

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Author
International Treaties and International Documents
Section I
Chapter 1 Introduction to International Law
1.1 International Law
1.2 The Resources of the Deep Seabed
1.3 Petroleum Deposits on the Continental Shelf
1.4 Energy Activities Under International Law
1.4.1 The Impact of Privatisation
1.5 The Influence of Science on Environmental Regulation in the Energy Sector
1.5.1 Definition of Pollution
1.5.2 Setting Environmental Standards
1.5.3 Scientific Assessment
1.5.4 The Technical Options
1.5.5 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATNEEC)
1.5.6 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
1.5.7 Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Life Cycle Assessment
1.6 International Policy and Regulatory Bodies
1.7 Energy Activities Within the United Nations
1.7.1 The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
1.7.2 The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
1.7.3 The International Energy Authority (IEA)
1.7.4 The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
1.8 The International Scope of Standard Setting
1.9 ISO, European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), and Sector Standards
1.9.1 The European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
1.10 Corporate Social Responsibility and Multinationals
1.11 Environmental Regulation of International Corporations
1.11.1 National and Regional Regulations
1.12 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
1.12.1 Measuring Stability
1.13 Developments on the International CCS Scene
1.13.1 The 2009 London Protocol Amendment
1.13.2 The OSPAR Convention
1.14 How Do You Develop a CCS Regulatory Framework?
1.15 Policy Incentives Essential to Deploy CCS
Notes
Chapter 2 Regulation, Energy Resources, and the Environment
2.1 Regulatory Design and Economics
2.2 Regulatory Development
2.3 Market Mechanisms
2.3.1 Types of Economic Instruments
2.4 The Economic Argument
2.5 An Overview of Two Market Mechanisms That Have Particular Relevance to the Energy Sector
2.5.1 Taxes/Charges
2.5.2 National Taxes
2.5.3 International Carbon Taxes
2.6 Emission Inventories
Notes
Chapter 3 International Law and State Sovereignty
3.1 Energy, International, and Environmental Laws
3.2 State Sovereignty Over Its Natural Resources
3.3 State Rights Over Mineral Resources and Common Space
3.4 The 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf
3.5 The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
3.6 Protection of the Marine Environment
3.6.1 Article 208
3.7 Oil Pollution
3.7.1 State Jurisdiction Over Coastal State Adjacent Seas
3.8 Standard Setting Within International Treaties and Their Protocols
3.9 The Depletion of the Ozone Layer
3.10 The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer
3.11 Climate Change
3.11.1 Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992
3.11.2 The Kyoto Protocol 1997
3.11.2.1 Use of the Flexible Mechanisms Under the Kyoto Protocol
3.11.3 The Paris Agreement 2015
3.11.4 The Glasgow Climate Pact
Notes
Chapter 4 Trade, Competition, and the Environment
4.1 International Competition Law and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
4.2 Intellectual Property Rights and Environmental Technology
4.2.1 Transfer of Environmental Technology and Corporate Social Responsibility
4.2.2 Theory, Intellectual Property Rights, and Technology Transfer
4.3 The Management of Risk in Energy Infrastructure
4.3.1 Bilateral and Multilateral Investment Agreements
4.3.2 Bilateral Investment Treaties
4.4 The Energy Charter Treaty
4.4.1 Investment Protection Under the Energy Charter Treaty
4.4.2 Transit Under the Energy Charter Treaty
4.4.3 Dispute Resolution
4.5 Case Studies
4.6 Model Agreements
4.6.1 Structuring Investment Protection
4.6.2 Agreement Reached at COP26
Notes
Chapter 5 Climate Change and the Energy Sector
5.1 Climate Change and COP26
5.1.1 Why Are NDCs Important and How Are They Enforced?
5.2 COP26 Outcomes
5.2.1 The Glasgow Climate Pact
5.2.2 The Paris Rulebook Finalised
5.2.2.1 Article 6 Carbon Markets
5.2.2.2 Article 13 Transparency
5.3 COP26 and the Energy Sector
5.3.1 What Net Zero Means for the Energy Transition
5.4 Is There a Role for Coal?
5.4.1 Carbon Capture
5.4.2 The Global Coal to Clean Power Transition Statement
5.5 The New Emission Pledges and Technology Innovation
5.5.1 Innovation and Intellectual Property
5.5.2 Innovation and Investment
5.5.3 The Glasgow Financial Alliance (GFANZ)
5.5.3.1 Governments and Climate Finance
5.6 Legal Risk and Climate Change
5.6.1 Policy Pressure
5.7 The Rise of Litigation Risk
5.8 Shareholder Involvement
5.9 Legal Issues in Climate Change Litigation
5.9.1 Justiciability
5.9.2 Sources of Climate Obligations
5.10 Attribution Science
5.11 Climate Change and Human Rights
5.11.1 Climate Change as a Human Rights Issue
Notes
Section II
Chapter 6 International Law on Oil and Gas
6.1 Licensing for Onshore Oil and Gas Exploration and Exploitation
6.2 The Licence Regime
6.3 The Concession Regime
6.4 Case Study of the Concession Regime in Brazil
6.5 Production-Sharing Agreements
6.6 Case Study of Production Sharing in Russia
6.7 Service Contracts
6.8 Case Study of a Service Contract in Iran
6.9 The Regulation of Offshore Installations Under International Law
6.10 Ships and Oil Rigs in International Law
6.11 Oil Rigs Under the Law of the Sea Convention, 1982
6.12 Jurisdiction of States in Relation to Offshore Installations
6.12.1 A State’s Right to Construct Offshore Installations
6.12.1.1 Internal Waters
6.12.1.2 In the Territorial Sea
6.12.1.3 The Exclusive Economic Zone
6.12.1.4 The Continental Shelf
6.12.1.5 On the High Seas
6.12.1.6 The International Deep Seabed Area
6.13 State Control and Jurisdiction Over Oil Rigs
6.14 Criminal Jurisdiction
6.15 Civil Jurisdiction
6.16 Pollution Control and Environmental Issues
6.17 Definition of Marine Pollution
6.18 Civil Liability for Environmental Harm Caused by Oil Pollution
6.19 Three Cases Brought Under the CLC
6.19.1 The Amoco Cadiz Case
6.19.2 The Sea Empress Case
6.19.3 The Braer Case
6.20 Decommissioning
6.20.1 The IMO Guidelines
6.20.2 The OSPAR Decision 98/3
6.20.3 The 1972 London Dumping Convention
6.21 Update
6.21.1 Gaps in the Regulatory Framework for the Environmental Safety of Offshore Drilling Activities
Notes
Chapter 7 International Regulation of the Nuclear Industry
7.1 Nuclear Energy and the Environment
7.2 The Emergence of Environmental Concerns
7.3 The International Regulation of Nuclear Energy
7.4 The IAEA and the Regulation of Nuclear Power
7.5 OECD Nuclear Energy Agency
7.6 Control of Nuclear Risk
7.6.1 International Obligations
7.7 Radiation Protection Standards
7.8 State Responsibility for Nuclear Damage and Environmental Harm
7.9 The Transportation of Radioactive Materials
7.10 The IAEA Regulations
7.11 The Civil Liability Conventions
7.11.1 The Paris Convention on Third-Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 1960
7.11.2 The Vienna IAEA Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 1963
7.11.3 The Brussels Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971
7.11.4 The General Scheme
7.11.5 Claims Under the Convention
7.12 Assessment of the Nuclear Conventions
7.13 Developments Since Chernobyl
7.14 Nuclear Waste
7.15 EURATOM and the European Dimension
7.16 Nuclear Installations in the United Kingdom
7.16.1 Radioactive Waste
7.16.2 Transport of Radioactive Substances
7.17 Decommissioning of Nuclear Installations in the European Union
7.18 Decommissioning in the United Kingdom
7.19 COP26 a Pivotal Point for Nuclear Energy
Notes
Chapter 8 International Regulation of Renewable Energy Sources
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Development Goals
8.3 Challenges for International Renewable Energy Law
8.4 IRENA and Its Power to Influence
8.5 IRENA and IEA in the Institutional Landscape of Renewable Energy
8.5.1 IRENA and IEA—Competition or Collaboration?
8.5.2 Membership
8.5.3 IRENA and IEA: A Case of Overlapping Scope
8.5.4 Managing the Overlap
8.5.5 IRENA, IEA, and the SE4All Initiative
8.6 Financing Renewable Energy
8.6.1 Sources of Capital
8.6.2 The IRENA Report
8.6.2.1 Public Investment
8.6.2.2 Institutional Capital for Renewables
8.6.2.3 Green Bonds
8.7 Legal Aspects of Technology Transfer
8.7.1 The Role of Intellectual Property Law and Policy
8.8 Renewable Energy and Human Rights
8.8.1 Clean Energy Supply Chain
Notes
Section III
Chapter 9 Energy Law in the United States
9.1 Federal Regulatory Bodies
9.2 Energy Regulation by the States
9.2.1 Interrelationship Between Federal and State Policy and Regulations
9.3 Constitutional Principles and Regulatory Jurisdiction
9.4 Regulation for the Different Energy Sectors
9.5 State Regulation of Oil and Gas
9.5.1 Federal Regulation
9.5.2 Federal Public Land
9.6 Offshore Oil and Gas
9.7 Environmental Concerns
9.7.1 Areas for Concern
9.8 Case Studies
9.9 Case Study of the BP Oil Spill
9.10 Coal
9.10.1 A Regulatory Overview
9.10.2 Health and Safety in Mines
9.10.3 Land Reclamation
9.10.4 Issues of Clean Air
9.10.5 Clean Coal Initiatives
9.11 Regulation of the Electricity Sector
9.11.1 The Current Situation
9.12 Nuclear Power in the United States
9.12.1 Case Study of Three Mile Island Disaster
9.12.2 Reforms
9.13 Hydropower and Renewable Sources
9.14 Update
9.14.1 Developments in Legislation and Regulation
9.14.2 Judicial Decisions Court Judgements and Public Enquiries
Notes
Chapter 10 Energy Law in the European Union
10.1 An Energy Policy for Europe
10.2 The Historical Development of European Energy Law
10.3 Scope of the ECSC Treaty
10.4 Inconsistencies Between the Treaties
10.5 The Objectives of the ECSC Treaty
10.6 The European Atomic Energy Community Treaty
10.7 The European Energy Policy
10.7.1 European Energy Policy and the Internal Energy Market
10.8 Investment Planning
10.9 Non-Discrimination and the Licensing of Hydrocarbons
10.10 The Liberalising of the Electricity and Gas Markets
10.11 The European Energy Charter Treaty
10.12 An Energy Union
10.13 Environmental Aspects
10.14 The Constitutional Basis of European Environmental Legislation
10.15 Types of European Environmental Legislation
10.16 Directives With Particular Relevance to the Energy Sector
10.16.1 The Environmental Assessment Directive
10.16.2 The Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and Direct Effect
10.16.3 Procedures for an Environmental Impact Assessment
10.16.4 Strategic Developments
10.16.5 The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC)
10.17 The Protection of Habitats and Species
10.17.1 The Habitats Directive
10.17.2 European Marine Sites
10.18 European Legislation Covering Industrial Activity in the Energy Sector
10.18.1 Hydrocarbon-Based Motor Fuels
10.18.2 The Storage and Distribution of Petrol
10.18.3 Emissions From Large Combustion Plants
10.19 Community Action: Energy Tax and Industry
10.20 Enforcing European Environmental Law
10.21 The Interrelationship Between the Third Energy Package and the Climate Change Package
10.21.1 The Policy Context
10.22 The Third Energy Package
10.23 The EU Climate Change and Renewable Energy Package
10.23.1 The New EU ETS
10.23.2 The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Decision
10.23.3 The Renewable Energy Directive
10.23.4 The Carbon Capture and Storage Directive (CCS)
10.23.5 The Biofuels Directive
10.23.6 The Emissions Standards Regulation
10.24 Looking Forward Under the European Climate Change Regime
Notes
Chapter 11 Energy Law in the United Kingdom
11.1 Energy Policy
11.1.1 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
11.1.2 Introducing Mandatory Social Price Support
11.1.3 Fairness of Energy Markets
11.2 The Primary Energy Supply
11.3 Infrastructure
11.4 Energy Users
11.5 The Interrelationship Between Environmental and Energy Policies
11.5.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions
11.5.2 Other Greenhouse Gas Emissions
11.5.3 Sulphur Emissions
11.5.4 Renewables
11.5.5 Combined Heat and Power
11.5.6 Localised Impacts
11.6 UK Regulatory Bodies
11.6.1 Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
11.6.2 Department for Business
11.6.3 The Department for Business Innovation and Skills
11.6.4 The Department of Energy and Climate Change
11.6.5 Parliamentary Select Committees
11.6.6 The Environment Agency
11.6.6.1 Background
11.6.6.2 Environmental Surveillance by the Agency
11.6.7 Local Authorities
11.6.7.1 Town and Country Planning
11.6.7.2 Air Pollution
11.6.7.3 Contaminated Land
11.6.7.4 Noise Control
11.6.8 The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA)
11.6.9 The Office of the Gas and Electricity Markets (OFGEM)
11.7 Regulations for the Different Energy Sectors
11.7.1 Oil and Gas
11.7.1.1 General Regulatory Framework
11.7.1.2 Ownership of Petroleum
11.7.1.3 The Legal Basis of Licensing
11.7.1.4 Application of Criminal Law to the UK Continental Shelf
11.7.1.5 Application of the Civil Law to the UK Continental Shelf
11.7.2 The EC Hydrocarbons Directive
11.7.3 Government Policy on Minerals
11.7.4 Pollution Control
11.7.4.1 The IPPC Directive and Offshore Installations
11.7.4.2 The Environmental Assessment Directive
11.7.4.3 Decommissioning
11.8 Decommissioning and Disposal
11.8.1 The OSPAR Commission
11.8.2 Disposal on Land
11.8.3 Post-Decommissioning Surveys and Monitoring
11.8.4 Residual Liability
11.9 Onshore Oil and Gas
11.9.1 The Licensing System
11.9.1.1 Coal-Bed Methane Gas (CBM)
11.9.2 Planning Controls
11.9.2.1 The Planning System
11.9.2.2 Planning Conditions
11.9.2.3 Planning Agreements and Obligations
11.9.2.4 Appeals
11.9.2.5 The Scope of Public Involvement
11.9.2.6 Access to Environmental Information
11.9.2.7 The European Directive
11.9.2.8 The Environmental Information Regulations, 1992
11.9.2.9 Environmental Protest
11.9.3 Vulnerable Sites
11.9.3.1 Protection for Designated Sites
11.9.3.2 The Coastal Zone
11.9.3.3 Landward-Marine Areas
11.10 Environmental Management Systems
11.11 The Gas Supply Industry
11.11.1 Regulation of the Gas Supply Industry
11.11.1.1 Duties
11.11.1.2 The Duty to Secure Competition
11.11.2 The Licensing Regime for the Gas Supply Industry
11.11.2.1 Types of Licence
11.11.2.2 The Network Code
11.11.3 The Competitive Market for Gas
11.11.3.1 Competition Policy
11.12 Electricity Supply Industry
11.12.1 The Structure of the Industry
11.12.1.1 The Participants
11.12.2 The Market Structure
11.12.2.1 England and Wales
11.12.2.2 Scotland
11.12.2.3 Northern Ireland
11.12.2.4 The Interconnectors
11.12.2.5 Generation
11.12.2.6 Transmission
11.12.2.7 Distribution
11.12.3 Regulation of the Industry
11.12.3.1 The Statutory Structure
11.12.4 Regulatory Bodies for the Electricity Supply Industry
11.12.4.1 The Secretary of State
11.12.4.2 The Secretary of State and the Director
11.12.4.3 General Duties of the Secretary of State and the Director
11.12.5 The Licensing Regime
11.12.5.1 The Grant of Licences
11.12.5.2 The Licence
11.12.5.3 The Generation Licence
11.12.5.4 The Transmission Licence
11.12.5.5 Public Electricity Supply Licences
11.12.5.6 Second-Tier Supply Licences
11.12.5.7 Exemptions From Licensing
11.12.5.8 Modification and Enforcement
11.12.5.9 Revocation of a Licence
11.12.6 The Powers and Duties of PESs
11.12.7 Possible Distortions of the Market
11.12.7.1 The Sale of Electricity to Consumers
11.12.7.2 The Protection of Consumers
11.12.8 Implementing the European Union’s Third Energy Package
11.12.9 Consumer Protection
11.12.10 OFGEM’s Role as the NRA for Great Britain
11.12.11 Transmission and Distribution Networks
11.12.12 Gas Infrastructure
11.12.13 Licence-Exempt Undertakings and Access to Private Networks
11.12.13.1 UK Energy Policy for the Future
11.12.13.2 Update
Notes
Chapter 12 Energy Law in India
12.1 Legislative Framework
12.2 Regulation of Electricity
12.3 The Policy Framework
12.4 Market Organisation
12.4.1 Generation
12.4.2 Transmission
12.4.3 Distribution
12.4.4 Sale of Electricity
12.5 Renewable Energy Policy
12.6 The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
12.7 Wind Energy
12.8 Solar Energy
12.9 Hydropower, Geothermal, and Wave Energies
12.10 Waste to Energy
12.11 Biofuels
12.12 Carbon Capture and Storage
12.13 Policy and the Climate Change Agenda
12.14 Nuclear Energy
12.15 Update
Notes
Chapter 13 Energy Law in Australia
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Energy Resources
13.1.2 Energy Production
13.1.3 Energy Policy
13.2 Industry Structure of the Electricity Market
13.2.1 The Regulators
13.2.2 Commonwealth and State Relations
13.2.2.1 The Tasmanian Dam Case
13.3 Energy Sectors
13.3.1 Uranium Mining
13.3.1.1 New South Wales
13.3.1.2 Northern Territory
13.3.1.3 South Australia
13.3.1.4 Victoria
13.3.1.5 Western Australia
13.4 Carbon Capture and Storage
13.5 Future Developments
13.5.1 Long-Term Liability Issues
13.6 Managing the Transition to Renewable Energy
Notes
Chapter 14 Energy Law in China
14.1 Evolution of Chinese Government Policy in Respect of the Energy Sector
14.2 Framework of Energy Law in China
14.3 Renewable Energy
14.3.1 Recent Developments in the Renewables Sector
Notes
Conclusions
Bibliography
Index