International Handbook of Population and Environment

Acknowledgments
Contents
1 Integrating the Environment into Population Research
Motivated, But on the Margins
Environmental Dimensions of Migration
Environmental Dimensions of Fertility
Environmental Dimensions of Population Health and Mortality
Time for Better Integration?
Moving Forward
Part I Theoretical Perspectives
2 Population and Environment Interactions: Macro Perspectives
Introduction
Defining the “Environment”
Population and the Environment Historically
Malthus, Boulding, and Boserup: The Population-Subsistence Debate
Developing Measures of the Earth's Carrying Capacity
A Finite World: Arguments and Counterarguments on the Centrality of Population in Environmental Deterioration
Complexity in a Simple Equation: The Development of IPAT
The Ecological Footprint, Scientific or Political Concept?
Systems Modelling of Population-Environment Interactions
Population as a Driver of Climate Change
Conclusion
3 A Micro Perspective: Elaborating Demographic Contributions to the Livelihoods Framework
Introduction
Classic to Contemporary Micro Perspectives
Early Ideas About Environmental Endowment Impacts on Demographic Behavior
Overall Demographic Impacts on Environmental Endowments
Human Migration Impacts on Environmental Endowments
Environmental Impacts on Migration and Health
The Demography of Household Consumption and Its Impacts on Environmental Sustainability
Demographic Contributions to the Livelihoods Framework: An Integrative Scientific Paradigm
Conclusion
4 Vulnerability to Climate Change and Adaptive Capacity from a Demographic Perspective
Introduction
Relevance of Demography to Global Climate Change Research
Application of Demographic Concepts and Tools in Climate Change Research
Demographically Differentiated Vulnerability
Physiologic Susceptibility
Differential Exposure
Differential Adaptive Capacity
Education as a Key to Reducing Vulnerability and Enhancing Adaptive Capacity
Mechanisms Through Which Education Reduces Vulnerability
Evidence on the Role of Formal Education in Vulnerability Reduction
Demographic Metabolism Theory and Multi-dimensional Demography
Forecasting Societies' Adaptive Capacity Based on Socioeconomic Development Scenarios
Human Core of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)
Predicting Future Climate Vulnerability Under the SSPs
Discussion and Conclusion
Part II Data & Methods
5 Household-Scale Data and Analytical Approaches
Introduction
Conceptual Model
Data Sources
Censuses
Household Surveys
Large-Scale, Multi-National Surveys
Large-Scale, Single-Country Surveys
Small-Scale Surveys
Demographic Surveillance Systems
Administrative Records and Vital Statistics
Analytic Approaches
Measuring Environmental Exposures
Controlling for Confounding Variables
Identifying Causal Mechanisms
Substantive Interpretation of Findings
Opportunities for Innovation
Conclusion
6 Spatial Data and Analytical Approaches
Introduction
Laying the Groundwork: Key Spatial Definitions and Concepts
Defining Spatial
Types of Spatial Data
Spatial Analytical Approaches
Key Challenges and Limitations
Spatially-Explicit Work in the Population and Environment Literature
Migration and the Environment
Fertility and the Environment
Mortality, Health, and the Environment
Future Directions
Multi-scalar Approach
Spatial Differentiation Across the Globe
Social-Environmental Vulnerability
7 Qualitative Data and Approaches to Population–Environment Inquiry
Introduction
Overview of Qualitative Methods and Concerns
Qualitative Research Examples
Example 1. Scientific Versus Local Knowledge
Example 2. Individual Experiences in Their Environment
Example 3. Participatory Action Research into Local Practices and Regional Dynamics of Seed Management
Examining the Validity of Qualitative Methods
Conclusions
Part III Migration & Environment
8 Building a Policy-Relevant Research Agenda on Environmental Migration in Africa
Introduction
Which Environmental Risks Are Pervasive in Africa?
Building a Consensus on Observed Climate Migration Patterns in Africa
Future Directions in Environmental Migration Research in Africa
Measurement of Migration
Exposure to Environmental Stressors
Mechanisms
Conclusion
9 Water Stress and Migration in Asia
Introduction
Identifying Research on Water Stress in Asia
Findings
Declining Agricultural Production Is a Commonly Cited Mechanism for Translating Water Stress into Migration
Study Geography in Asia Is Broadly Out of Step with Greatest Projected Changes in Temperature and Precipitation
Overcoming Data Gaps
Institutions and Policies Have an Important Intervening Role in Asia
Discussion
The Policy Implications of Research
Appendix 1: Additional Articles Considered in the Geospatial Review
10 Environmentally Informed Migration in North America
Introduction
Development, Environmental Management, and Population Redistribution in North America
Environmental Management and Human Settlement in North America
Urbanization and the Environment as an Amenity
Three Types of Environmental Migration
Amenity Migration
Natural Hazard-Related Migration
Anthropogenic Hazards and Migration
The Future of North American Environmental Migration
Place and Social Vulnerability to Climate Change
Policies Influencing Environmental Migration
Conclusion
11 Environmental Migration in Latin America
Introduction
Environmental Migration in Mexico
Climate Variability and International Migration
Climate Variability and Internal Migration
Environmental Migration in Central America
Overview of Environment-Migration Connections in Central America
Migration Following Natural Disasters
Impacts of International Migration on Land-Use Change
Environmental Migration in the Caribbean
Environmental Degradation, Natural Disasters, and Migration
Environmental Migration in South America
Climatic Variability and Migration Across the Region, and in Comparative Perspective
Dams and Displacement in Brazil
Conclusions
Part IV Health and Mortality
12 Air Pollution, Health, and Mortality
Introduction
Air Pollution and Health
Physiological Mechanisms and the Life Cycle
Methodological Challenges and Approaches
Global Distribution of Air Pollution Exposure and the Concentration-Response Curve
Effects of Air Pollution in Developed Vs. Developing Countries
Inequality in Exposure
Inequality in Effect Conditional on Exposure
Co-Benefits & Climate Change: Population Health Consequences in the Long Run
Data Availability
Independent Variables: Air Pollution Data
Dependent Variables: Mortality and Population Health
Conclusion
13 Population and Water Issues: Going Beyond Scarcity
International Recognition of the Population–Water Nexus
Water-Related Challenges to Population Health
Major Demographic Variations
Age
Sex and Gender
Socio-economic Status
Household Composition
Place of Residence
Conclusion
14 Heat, Mortality, and Health
Introduction
Climate Change, Extreme Temperatures, and Heat Waves
Heat Waves and Mortality
How Heat Kills
Some Notable Heat Waves
Using Population-Level Data to Understand Links Between Heat and Mortality
Heat and Mortality among Infants and Children
Climate Change and Adaptation
Prenatal Heat Exposure and Adverse Birth Outcomes
Heat, Food Security, and Undernutrition
Heat and Infectious Diseases
Future Research Directions and Data Needs
15 Land Use Change and Health
Introduction
Conceptual Model of Land Use Change and Health
Agricultural Extensification and Intensification
Agricultural Expansion and Deforestation
Agricultural Intensification
CAFOs and Livestock Farming
Infrastructure Expansion
City Expansion
Communicable and Vector-Borne Diseases
Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs)
Accidents and Injuries
Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect
Road Development
Roads, Increased Population Movement and Mixing, and Health
Impact of Road Development on the Local Physical and Chemical Environment and Ecosystem
Extractive Industry
Conclusions
16 Health and Mortality Consequences of Natural Disasters
Introduction
A Conceptual Framework
Pre-Event Factors
Factors Related to the Disaster Event
Long-Term Consequences and Invisible Factors
Current State of the Field – Disasters and Health
Levels of Impact
Community-Level Impacts
Household-Level Impacts
Individual-Level Impacts
Timing of Impacts
Short Term Impacts
Medium Term Impacts
Longer Term Impacts
Disparities in Post-Disaster Health Impacts
The Influence of Pre-Disaster Circumstances
The Influence of Circumstances During the Disaster
Resilience
Current State of the Field – Disasters and Mortality
Conclusions and Recommendations for Moving Forward the Field on Health, Mortality, and Natural Disasters
Part V The Influence of Demographic Dynamics on the Environment
17 Cities and Their Environments
Introduction
Demography, Geography, and Sustainability
Empirical Regularities in Urbanization
Local Governments
Environmental Risks Facing Urban Dwellers
Inadequate Access to Fresh Water
Drought
Urban Heat and Air Pollution
Flooding
Landslide Risks
Environmental Effects of Urbanization: The Urban–Rural Interface
Vector-Borne Disease Risks
Cropland Loss
Threats to Biodiversity
Fire Risks Along the Wildland–Urban Interface
Subsidence in Deltaic and Coastal Areas
Conclusion
18 Population and Agricultural Change
Introduction
The Theories, the Grand Debate, and Evidence Up to the 1990's
Malthus and Boserup
Extensions and Alternative Theoretical Approaches to Analyzing the Determinants of Extensification vs. Intensification
Some Evidence Up to the 1990s, from Case Studies
Land Extensification
Intensification of Land Use
Evidence Up to the 1990s: Cross-Country Quantitative Evidence
Reassessment of the Theory and Definitions
Clearing Up Definitional Ambiguities
Linkages Between Malthus and Boserup?
More Recent Evidence
A Meta-appraisal of the Literature in Journal Articles Since About 2000
Focusing on Land Extensification
Focusing on Intensification
Some Conclusions Regarding Extensification vs. Intensification Studies Since 2000 and the Role of Population
A Broader Sweep of the Data for 130 Developing Countries, 1961–2008
Reflections and Moving Forward
Quick Summary of Main Points from the Literature Review and Update
Policy Implications
Research Needs, Macro Level Going Forward
Research Needs, Micro Level Going Forward
Appendix
19 Population and Energy Consumption/Carbon Emissions: What We Know, What We Should Focus on Next
Introduction
Demographic Determinants of Energy Use/Carbon Emissions
Age Structure and Household Composition
Population Density
Household Size
Cohort vs Life-Cycle Effects
Demographic Factors and the Adoption of Energy-Savings/Carbon-Reducing Technologies
Moving Forward
What Not to Do
What Not to Do—STIRPAT
What Not to Do—Urbanization
What to Do
What to Do – Prediction
What to Do – Policy
What to Do – The Supply of Energy
What to Do – Multiple Equation Modeling
What to Do – Expanding the Geographic Scope
What to Do – Education
What to Do – A Reverse Effect?
Conclusions
Part VI Other Arenas
20 Environment and Fertility
Introduction
Environment and Fertility: Methods, Understandings, and Theories
Conceptualizing the Environment: Shocks Vs. Stressors
Conceptualizing the Environment: Human Vs. Nature
Conceptualizing Pathways: Behavioral Vs. Physiological
Conceptualizing Pathways: Direct Vs. Indirect
Conceptualizing Fertility: Pre-Conception Vs. Post-Conception Outcomes
Conceptualizing Research: Observational Vs. Intervention-Centered Studies
Multiphasic Response
Life Cycle Hypotheses
Fertility and Household Endowments
Risk Diversification
Child Survival and Replacement
Vicious Circle Model
Union Formation and Fertility Desires
Factors Affecting Conception and Early Pregnancy Loss Probability
Live Births
Household Economic Impacts
Disruption of Livelihoods in Disasters
Environmental Contributors to Birth Seasonality
Heat-Related Physiological Mechanisms
Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes
Environmental Shocks and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes
Environmental Stressors and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes
Population, Health, and Environment Programs
Conclusion
21 Gender, Population and the Environment
Introduction
How Does Gender Shape Population-Environment Linkages?
Gender and Environment Theory
Major Areas of Research
Gender and Perceptions of Environmental Change and Risk
Gender and Environmental Impact
Gender and Adaptation
Gendered Outcomes of Environmental Shocks and Stressors
Methodological Considerations and Critiques
Gaps, Challenges, and Future Directions
22 Socio-demographic Inequalities in Environmental Exposures
The Urbanization and Industrialization of New Environmental Exposures
The Failure of New Regulations to Curb Unjust Environmental Exposures
Advancing Contextual and Demographic Understandings of Unequal Exposures
Uncovering Exposures to Relict Industrial Wastes
The Unequal Impacts of “Natural” Hazards in the Age of Climate Change
Conclusion
Part VII Conclusion & Reflections
23 Reflections on the Past, Present, and Future of Population-Environment Research
24 Environmental Migration Scholarship and Policy: Recent Progress, Future Challenges