International Conflict and Security Law: A Research Handbook

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I Protected Values
1 Humanity
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief Observations on the Role of the Concept of Humanity in International Law
1.3 Humanity as ‘Humanness’ and International Criminal Law
1.3.1 Conceptual Aspects: Content and Constituent Elements
1.3.2 Normative Aspects: Protected Legal Interest
1.4 Humanness and the Principle of Humanity in International Humanitarian Law
1.5 Humanity in International Human Rights Law: Human Dignity as Its Manifestation
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Self-determination of Peoples
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Self-determination as a Value
2.3 Historical Transformations of the Principle and the Mythology of Self-determination
2.4 Self-determination in Two Post-War Movements
2.5 The Third Movement: Self-determination as a Universal Moral Value and the Theories of Secession
2.5.1 Choice Theory
2.5.2 The Nationalist Theories
2.5.3 Just Cause Theories
2.6 The Critique of the Right to Self-determination and the Possibility of Further Developments
2.6.1 What Comprises a People?
2.6.2 The Critique of the Language of Rights
2.6.3 The Return of the Great Powers Rule
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 The International Rule of Law
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Delineating the International Rule of Law
3.3 The International Rule of Law, International Legality, and Values of Humanity
3.3.1 Formal Side of the International Rule of Law
3.3.2 The International Rule of Law and Global Values
3.4 The International Rule of Law in Practice: Conflict and Security Context
3.4.1 The Use of Force and the Conduct of Hostilities
3.4.2 Issues of Transparency and Accountability
3.4.3 Issues of Compliance with Substantive Values Shared by the International Community
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 The Common Heritage of Mankind
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Genesis of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle in International Law
4.3 The Normative Nature of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle
4.4 The Elements of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle
4.4.1 Prohibition of Private and Public Appropriation or Sovereignty
4.4.2 Designation for Peaceful Uses
4.4.3 Equitable Distribution of Benefits
4.4.4 Concerted Management and Exploitation by All Nations
4.5 Recent Developments and the Future of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Human Rights: Between Universalism and Relativism
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Universality and Cultural Relativism: Human Rights Law as a Battleground
5.2.1 The Principle of Universality of Human Rights
5.2.2 Questioning Universality
5.3 Contesting the Liberal Model
5.3.1 Shades of Disagreement Within the International Community
5.3.2 The Issue with the Liberal World Order
5.4 Transcending the Tensions: New Developments Resulting from Current Challenges and Possible Ways Forward
5.4.1 Accommodating Universalism
5.4.2 Accepting Cultural Relativism Within Universalism
5.5 Conclusion
References
Part II Law
6 The Use of Force in International Law
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Use of Force Regime Under the League of Nations
6.3 The Use of Force Regime Under the United Nations
6.4 Exceptions to the Prohibition on the Use of Force
6.4.1 General Observations
6.4.2 Collective Security Measures
6.4.3 The Right to Self-defence
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 The UN Security Council: From Preserving State Sovereignty to Protecting Humanity
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Security Council’s Practice Unpacked (1946–2017)
7.2.1 Tracing International Law in the Text of Resolutions
7.2.2 Significance and Limits of the Thematic Resolutions
7.3 The Security Council and the International Rule of Law
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 UN Security Council Sanctions and International Peace and Security: Context, Controversies and (Legal) Challenges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Nature of Security Council Sanctions
8.2.1 Terminological Considerations
8.2.2 Article 41 in Context
8.3 From Blanket to (Not So) Smart Sanctions
8.4 (Individual) Rights and (UN) Responsibilities
8.4.1 Specific Rights Engaged
8.4.2 Legal Limitations on Security Council Sanctions
8.5 Challenging Sanctions Inside and Outside the Courtroom
8.5.1 The ICJ
8.5.2 Regional and Domestic Courts
8.5.3 The Ombudsperson Procedure
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Peace(keeping) Operations: Soldiers Without Enemies?
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The UN Charter Framework and the Necessity of Security Council Authorisation
9.2.1 The Pacific Settlement of Disputes|Chapter VI
9.2.2 Authorising Enforcement Action|Chapter VII
9.2.3 Innovation Through Straddling the Divide|Chapter VI½
9.3 Peacekeeping Operations—An Overview
9.3.1 Terminology
9.3.2 Underlying Principles
9.3.3 Legal Basis
9.3.4 How is a Peacekeeping Operation Created?
9.3.5 The Evolution Post-Cold War
9.4 What are the Next Challenges?
9.4.1 Proposals for Change
9.4.2 What is the Future of Peace Operations?
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 The Status of Forces Agreements
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Historical Overview
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 19th and 20th Century General Practice
10.2.3 NATO Status of Forces Agreement
10.2.4 Status of Forces and Crisis Management Operations
10.3 International Law Perspective
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Jurisdiction of States over Armed Forces Personnel Stationed Abroad
10.3.3 Immunity of State Officials
10.4 Operational Law Perspective
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Military Operational Law
10.4.3 Operational Law Perspective on SOFAs
10.5 Synthesis and Conclusion
References
11 International Human Rights Law
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Civil and Political Rights
11.3 Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
11.4 Limitations and Derogations
11.5 The UN Human Rights System
11.5.1 Treaty Bodies
11.5.2 Human Rights Council
11.5.3 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
11.6 Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights
11.7 Conflict- and Security-Related Human Rights Case Studies
11.7.1 Right to Life
11.7.2 Cultural Rights
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Direct Participation in Hostilities
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Emergence of DPH in Treaty Law
12.3 Treaties, Commentaries, Reports and Cases
12.3.1 The ICRC Customary Study on IHL and DPH
12.4 The Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of DPH—Introductory Comments
12.4.1 Temporal Scope of the Loss of Protection
12.4.2 The Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of DPH—Elements of DPH
12.4.3 Threshold of Harm
12.4.4 Direct Causation
12.4.5 Belligerent Nexus
12.4.6 Beginning and End of DPH
12.4.7 Precautions and Presumptions in Situations of Doubt
12.4.8 Restraints on the Use of Force in Direct Attack
12.4.9 Consequences of Regaining Civilian Protection
12.4.10 Conclusion to the Interpretive Guidance
12.5 The Application of DPH by the ICC in Ntaganda in 2019
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 The Conduct of Hostilities
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Targeting
13.3 Fundamental Rules of the Conduct of Hostilities
13.3.1 Distinction
13.3.2 Precautions
13.3.3 Proportionality
13.4 Specific Prohibitions and Restrictions
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Chemical Weapons
14.1 Introduction
14.2 A Short Historic Overview of the Use of Chemical Weapons
14.3 Law Regulating the Use of Chemical Weapons
14.3.1 IHL Principles Regulating the Use of Chemical Weapons
14.3.2 Arms Control Law Regulating Chemical Weapons
14.4 Biological Weapons
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Nuclear Weapons
15.1 Introduction
15.2 What is a Nuclear Weapon?
15.3 Existing International Legal Framework
15.3.1 Use of Nuclear Weapons
15.3.2 Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
15.3.3 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice
15.4 Nuclear Weapons and Relevant Specific Rules and Principles of International Law
15.4.1 Jus ad bellum
15.4.2 Jus in bello
15.4.3 International Criminal Law
15.4.4 International Human Rights Law
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Blinding Laser Weapons
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons
16.2.1 General Provisions and Scope of Application of Protocol IV
16.2.2 Question of Interpretation of Certain Articles of Protocol IV
16.3 Use of Laser Weapons with Consequences for Human Vision
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Fuel Air Explosive Weapons
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Principle of Action of Fuel Air Explosive Weapons
17.3 Necessity of International Legal Regulation
17.3.1 Indiscriminate Effect
17.3.2 Superfluous Injury and Excessive Suffering
17.3.3 Widespread, Long-term and Severe Damage to the Natural Environment
17.4 Conclusion
References
18 Current Issues of Hague Law
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Depleted Uranium Ammunition
18.3 Dum-dum Bullets: Modern Aspects
References
19 Military Space Operations
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Defining Military Space Operations
19.3 International Space Law
19.3.1 No General Prohibition of Military Space Operations
19.3.2 Specific Restrictions on Military Space Operations
19.3.3 Interaction Between Space Law and Other Areas of International Law
19.4 International Law on the Use of Force
19.4.1 Use of Force
19.4.2 Threat to Use Force
19.4.3 Armed Attack and Self-defence
19.5 International Humanitarian Law
19.5.1 Distinction
19.5.2 Proportionality
19.5.3 Precautions
19.6 Conclusion
References
20 The Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources in Armed Conflict
20.1 Introduction
20.2 A Brief History of the Environmental Consequences of Armed Conflict
20.3 Relevant Treaty-based International Law
20.3.1 Additional Protocol I
20.3.2 The Environmental Modification Convention
20.3.3 Statute of the International Criminal Court
20.3.4 Common Article 3
20.3.5 Additional Protocol II
20.4 International Jurisprudence
20.4.1 International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg
20.4.2 International Court of Justice
20.4.3 United Nations Compensation Commission
20.5 Future Developments
20.6 Conclusion
References
21 The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict and Occupation
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Historical Overview
21.2.1 Plunder and Destruction of Cultural Property in History
21.2.2 The Intellectual Change as Introduced by Modern Legal Thinkers
21.3 The Legal Framework Applicable to the Protection of Cultural Heritage
21.3.1 The IV 1907 Hague Regulations
21.3.2 The Roerich Pact
21.3.3 The 1954 Hague Convention
21.4 The Regime Applicable During Occupation
21.4.1 1907 Hague Regulations
21.4.2 1954 Hague Convention and 1999 Second Protocol
21.4.3 1954 First Protocol
21.5 UN Security Council Resolutions
21.6 Conclusion
References
22 Transnational and International Criminal Law
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Multiple Definitions of Transnational and International Criminal Law
22.3 Substantive "Transnational” Rules of Domestic Criminal Law (Droit Pénal International): Principles of Transnational Criminal Jurisdiction
22.3.1 Territorial Jurisdiction
22.3.2 Active Personality Principle
22.3.3 Passive Personality Principle
22.3.4 Protective Principle
22.3.5 Exclusive Jurisdiction
22.3.6 Vicarious (Representational) Jurisdiction
22.3.7 Universal Jurisdiction
22.4 International Criminal Procedure
22.4.1 Principles of International Criminal Procedure
22.4.2 International Cooperation in Penal Matters
22.5 International Criminal Law stricto sensu (Droit International Pénal)
22.5.1 General Part of International Criminal Law
22.5.2 “Core Crimes” Under International Law
22.5.3 International Crimes, Delicts, and Infractions
22.5.4 Direct Enforcement of International Criminal Law
22.5.5 Indirect Enforcement of International Criminal Law
22.6 Transitional Justice
22.6.1 Penal Prosecutions
22.6.2 Amnesty
22.6.3 Truth and Reconciliation Commission
22.6.4 Compensation
22.6.5 Lustration
22.7 Conclusion
References
23 International Anti-corruption Law
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Overview of the Main Sources
23.2.1 International Law
23.2.2 Pledges, Commitments and “Leading by Example”
23.2.3 National Law with Extraterritorial Effect
23.2.4 Anti-corruption Compliance
23.3 Overview of Relevant Case Law
23.3.1 Petty Corruption
23.3.2 Corruption in the Corporate Realm
23.3.3 Grand Corruption and the Proposal for an International Anti-Corruption Court
23.3.4 Specialized National Anti-corruption Courts
23.4 New Developments Resulting from Current Challenges, and Possible Ways Forward
23.4.1 Integrity and the Emphasis on Ethics
23.4.2 Collective Action
23.4.3 Enhancing Transparency, Publicity and Open Access to Information
23.4.4 Whistleblower Protection
23.4.5 Public Procurement Rules
23.4.6 Infrastructure Development
23.5 Conclusion
References
24 The Due Diligence Obligations of International Organisations Engaged in Disaster Management
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Concept and Sources of Due Diligence Obligations for IOs
24.3 Due Diligence Obligations Related to Disaster Management Incumbent upon the UN
24.3.1 Haiti Cholera Epidemic Outbreak
24.3.2 Kosovo Lead Poisoning
24.3.3 Bangladesh Tube Wells Arsenic Poisoning
24.4 Due Diligence Obligations of Regional Organisations and Specialised Agencies
24.5 Conclusions
References
Part III Institutions
25 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Historical Evolution of the OSCE
25.3 Purpose of the OSCE
25.4 OSCE’s Institutions and Activities on International Security and Co-operation
25.5 OSCE’s Legal Framework through International Security
25.6 Conclusion
References
26 European Union (EU): Security, Conflict and Migration
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Historical Overview
26.3 Treaty Provisions for the CSDP and CFSP
26.3.1 The Common Security and Defence Policy
26.3.2 The Strategy of European Security
26.3.3 The European Agenda on Security
26.4 Court Jurisdiction
26.5 Security and Conflict in Process of Change and Migration Management
26.5.1 The Response of the European Union to the Migrant Crisis
26.6 Conclusion
References
27 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
27.1 Introduction
27.2 The Creation and Evolution of ASEAN
27.3 ASEAN and International / Regional Security
27.4 Conclusion
References
28 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 History, Nature, and Idea of Collective Security
28.2 Historical Background of Collective Security Treaty Organization
28.3 Legal Framework and Legal Structure of the Collective Security Treaty Organization
28.4 Activities of Collective Security Treaty Organization
28.5 Conclusion
References
29 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
29.1 The Long Way to Transitional Justice
29.1.1 An Incapacitating Post-Conflict Situation
29.1.2 One Step Forward and Two Steps Back Negotiation Process
29.2 A Limited Jurisdiction
29.2.1 Temporal Jurisdiction
29.2.2 Territorial Jurisdiction
29.2.3 Subject-Matter Jurisdiction
29.2.4 Personal Jurisdiction
29.3 A Hybrid Jurisdiction of Extraordinary Nature
29.3.1 A Hybrid Structure…
29.3.2 ... Inserted Into the National Judicial System
29.4 A Review of the ECCC Caseload
29.4.1 Case 001
29.4.2 Case 002/01 and Case 002/02
29.4.3 Other Cases
29.5 A Potential Legacy for an Extraordinary Set-up?
References
30 Other “Hybrid” Tribunals
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Hybrid Tribunals: Definition
30.3 Hybrid Tribunals: Reasons for Their Creation
30.4 Critique on the Establishment of Hybrid Tribunals
30.5 The Worldwide and Continuous Allure of Hybrid Courts and Their Relationship with the ICC
30.5.1 Special Panels for Serious Crimes in Timor-Leste 1999–2005
30.5.2 The Special Court for Sierra Leone 2002–2013
30.5.3 The Special Tribunal for Lebanon
30.5.4 The Extraordinary African Chambers of the Courts of Senegal
30.6 Conclusion
References
31 Post-conflict Justice Mechanisms
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Seeking Justice in Transition
31.3 The Legal Framework of Transitional Justice
31.3.1 The Right to Justice
31.3.2 The Right to Truth
31.3.3 The Right to Reparation
31.3.4 Guarantees of Non-recurrence
31.4 The Practice of Transitional Justice
31.4.1 Trials
31.4.2 Truth Commissions
31.4.3 Reparations
31.4.4 Reform
31.5 Conclusion
References
32 INTERPOL
32.1 The History of INTERPOL’s Foundation
32.1.1 Origins and Nazi Takeover
32.1.2 Revival
32.2 Challenges to INTERPOL’s Legal Status
32.2.1 The Nature of INTERPOL’s Constitution
32.2.2 The Capacity of INTERPOL’s Founders
32.2.3 The Member States Express Consent
32.2.4 A Problem Solved
32.3 Governance of INTERPOL
32.3.1 The Documentary Foundation
32.3.2 The Deliberative Entities
32.4 Instruments of International Police Cooperation
32.4.1 Aims and Purposes
32.4.2 The Notice System
32.4.3 Criticism
32.5 Conclusion
References
33 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
33.1 UNESCO as an Intergovernmental Organization
33.1.1 Historical Background
33.1.2 Purposes
33.1.3 Structure
33.2 UNESCO—Peace, Security and Conflict
33.2.1 Education, Peace and Conflict
33.2.2 Initiatives to Minimize Threats to Peace
33.3 Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflicts
33.4 Advances in Science for Peace
33.5 New Weapons Technologies
33.6 UNESCO and International Politics—Impact on Peace and Security
33.7 Conclusion
References
34 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
34.1 Introduction
34.2 History of UNICEF
34.3 UNICEF’s Principles
34.4 UNICEF’s Activities and Missions
34.5 UNICEF’s Response to COVID-19
34.6 Conclusion
References
35 World Health Organization (WHO)
35.1 Introduction
35.2 History of the WHO
35.3 The WHO—A Specialized Agency of the United Nations
35.4 Legal Personality
35.5 Organizational Structure
35.6 The WHO Functions
35.7 WHO Rule-Making Function
35.8 State Responsibilities in Combatting the COVID-19 Pandemic
35.9 Conclusion
References
36 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
36.1 Preliminary Remarks
36.2 The UNDP and the Right to Development as a Human Right
36.3 The UNDP in a Nutshell
36.4 The UNDP: Roles, Challenges and Critique
36.5 Final Remarks
References
37 The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
37.1 Origin
37.2 Mission and Structure of the Movement
37.3 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
37.3.1 Recognition of National Societies
37.3.2 Mandate, Role and Tasks
37.3.3 Auxiliarity
37.4 The International Committee of the Red Cross—ICRC
37.4.1 Origin
37.4.2 Legal Basis and Mandate
37.4.3 Functions and Role
37.4.4 Tasks and Operations
37.5 The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
37.6 Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
37.7 Conclusion
References
38 Human Rights NGOs and Humanitarian NGOs
38.1 Introduction
38.2 The Legal Nature of NGOs
38.3 History of Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs
38.4 Key Tasks of Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs
38.5 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs and International Law Development
38.6 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs International Legal Obligations Monitoring
38.7 Activities of NGOs in Humanitarian Assistance
38.8 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs and COVID-19 Pandemic
38.9 Conclusion
References
Part IV Challenges
39 Climate Change and Armed Conflict
39.1 Introduction
39.2 History of the Relationship Between Climate Change and Conflict
39.3 Anticipated Climatic Causes of Armed Conflict
39.3.1 Resource Scarcity
39.3.2 Migration and Geopolitical Tensions
39.3.3 Disputes Over Responses to Climate Change
39.4 Relevant International Law
39.4.1 International Humanitarian Law
39.4.2 International Climate Change Law
39.4.3 International Criminal Law
39.5 Future Developments
39.6 Conclusion
References
40 Poaching and Wildlife Trafficking as Threats to International Peace and Security
40.1 Poaching and Wildlife Crime
40.2 Legal Framework
40.3 Poaching-Terror Link
40.4 Poaching and Regional Conflict
40.5 The Militarization of Conservation
40.6 A New Ecocentric Approach in International Law?
40.7 Conclusion
References
41 The Use of Force in Pursuance of the Right to Self-determination
41.1 Introduction
41.2 The Use of Force
41.2.1 General Issues Surrounding the Use of Force
41.2.2 The Conflation of Military and Police Force
41.3 IHL Parameters Relevant to Self-determination
41.3.1 Common Article 3
41.3.2 Self-determination and ‘Internationalised’ Uses of Force
41.3.3 Formalisation as ‘International’
41.4 Forceful Self-determination as ‘Terrorism’
41.4.1 ‘Terrorist’ Force and Self-determination
41.4.2 Locating ‘Terrorism’ for Legal Purposes
41.4.3 The Necessity of Forceful Struggle
41.4.4 The Terrorism-Liberation Distinction
41.5 Conclusion
References
42 The African Region’s Pushback Against Mercenaries
42.1 The OAU and the Challenge of Mercenaries (1963–2003)
42.2 The African Union and the Current Challenge (Since 2002)
42.2.1 Libya (2019- to Date)
42.3 The Regulation of Mercenary Activity in Africa
42.3.1 Current Treaties
42.3.2 The Malabo Protocol (2014)
42.4 Conclusion
References
43 International Humanitarian Protection to Disabled and Elderly People in Armed Conflict Zones
43.1 Introduction
43.2 The Humanitarian Protection of Disabled People
43.3 The Humanitarian Protection of Elderly People
43.4 Conclusion
References
44 The Politics of International Justice
44.1 Introduction
44.2 ‘Classical’ Understanding of International Law and the First International Courts
44.3 The Special Status of the Area of International Humanitarian Law, International Criminal Law, and International Human Rights Law
44.3.1 Early International Criminal Prosecutions: Ascribing Individual Responsibility and Power Politics
44.3.2 The Development of International Human Rights Courts and the Empowerment of the Individual
44.3.3 The Modern International Criminal Law Courts: Between Power Politics and the Pursuit of Objectivity
44.4 The Work of International Courts: Between Justice and Politics
44.4.1 International Criminal Courts
44.4.2 International Human Rights Courts
44.5 Conclusion
References
45 Poverty
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Defining, Measuring and Framing Poverty
45.2.1 How Prevalent Is Poverty?
45.2.2 Different Views on the Causes of Poverty and Implications for Poverty Reduction Strategies
45.3 The Various Relationships between Poverty and Conflict
45.3.1 Poverty as a Cause or a Driver of Instability
45.3.2 Poverty as a Symptom and Consequence of Conflict
45.3.3 Poverty as a Result of Deliberate Harm
45.3.4 Poverty as a Subject of Transitional Justice
45.3.5 Poverty as a (Neglected) Concern in So-Called ‘Post-Conflict’ Measures
45.4 The International Legal and Policy Framework
45.5 Concluding Thoughts on the Role of International Law in Addressing the Relationship between Poverty and Conflict
References
Part V Crimes
46 Genocide
46.1 Introduction
46.2 The New Requirement of a Contextual Element
46.2.1 Lack of Any Reference to A Contextual Element in the Rome Statute
46.2.2 The Issue of the Elements of Crimes Requesting an Additional Condition
46.3 Mens Rea: The Mental Elements
46.3.1 “Intent”
46.3.2 To “Destroy”
46.3.3 The Protected Groups: National, Ethnical, Racial and Religious Groups
46.3.4 In Whole “or in Part”
46.3.5 “As Such”
46.4 Actus Reus: Prohibited Acts
46.4.1 Killing
46.4.2 Causing Serious Bodily or Mental Harm to Members of the Group
46.4.3 Deliberately Inflicting on the Group Conditions of Life Calculated to Bring about Its Physical Destruction in Whole or in Part
46.4.4 Imposing Measures Intended to Prevent Births within the Group
46.4.5 Forcibly Transferring Children of a Protected Group to Another Group
46.5 Conclusion
References
47 Crimes Against Humanity
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Historical Development
47.3 Contemporary Definition
47.4 Protective Scope
47.5 Contextual (Material) Elements
47.5.1 International Element of the Crime
47.5.2 Widespread or Systematic Attack
47.5.3 Any Civilian Population
47.5.4 Policy Element
47.6 Individual Acts
47.6.1 Murder
47.6.2 Extermination
47.6.3 Enslavement
47.6.4 Deportation or Forcible Transfer of Population
47.6.5 Imprisonment or Other Severe Deprivations of Liberty
47.6.6 Torture
47.6.7 Sexual Crimes
47.6.8 Persecution
47.6.9 Enforced Disappearance of Persons
47.7 Relationship to Other Crimes Under International Law
47.8 Current Open Issues, Challenges and New Developments
47.9 Conclusion
References
48 The Crime of Apartheid
48.1 Apartheid in Historical Context
48.1.1 Introduction
48.1.2 Apartheid and Settler-Colonialism
48.1.3 The Policy and Legal Foundations of the System of Apartheid in South Africa
48.1.4 Resisting Apartheid
48.1.5 The Armed Struggle against Apartheid
48.2 Political and Legal Responses to the System of Apartheid
48.2.1 An Overview of International Instruments Declaring Apartheid to be a Crime against Humanity
48.2.2 Defining the Crime of Apartheid
48.3 Apartheid as a Crime against Humanity (and Humanness)
48.4 Conclusion
References
49 War Crimes
49.1 A Brief History of International Prosecutions for War Crimes
49.2 The Concept and Elements of War Crimes
49.3 Classification of War Crimes
49.3.1 War Crimes against Protected Persons
49.3.2 War Crimes against Protected Objects
49.3.3 War Crimes Related to Unlawful Methods of Warfare
49.3.4 War Crimes Related to Unlawful Means of Warfare
49.4 Perpetrators and Victims
49.4.1 Perpetrators
49.4.2 Victims
49.5 Prosecutions and Amnesty
49.6 Conclusion
References
50 The Crime of Aggression: The Fall of the Supreme International Crime?
50.1 Introductory Remarks
50.2 The Hypothesis of Nuremberg: The Supreme International Crime
50.3 The Marginalization of the Crime of Aggression after Nuremberg
50.3.1 The Retarding Moments of the Resurrection of the Crime of Aggression
50.3.2 The Consensual Jurisdiction of the ICC in the Absence of a Security Council Referral
50.3.3 The Domestic Enforcement Conundrum
50.4 Conclusion: Do Not Bite the Hand That Feeds You
References
51 Military Ecocide
51.1 Introduction
51.2 The History of Military Ecocide
51.2.1 Offensive Ecocide
51.2.2 Defensive Ecocide
51.2.3 Collateral Damage: Indirect Military Environmental Degradation
51.3 The Militarization of the Environment
51.4 History of International Law on Military Ecocide
51.5 Normative Progress in Criminalizing Military Ecocide
51.6 Conclusion
References
52 Religious Extremism
52.1 Religion and Violence
52.2 Religious Extremism
52.3 Fundamentalism versus Extremism
52.4 Extremism in Judaism
52.5 Extremism in Christianity
52.6 Extremism in Islam
52.7 Extremism in Buddhism
52.8 Extremism in Hinduism
52.9 Human Rights and Countering Religious Extremism
52.10 Conclusion
References
53 Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking
53.1 Introduction
53.1.1 The Main Differences Between Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking
53.2 Human Smuggling
53.2.1 Legal Framing
53.2.2 Maritime Migrant Smuggling
53.3 Human Trafficking
53.3.1 Legislative Framework
53.3.2 Human Trafficking as a Form of Modern Slavery
53.4 Human Trafficking and Smuggling in Conflict
53.4.1 International Jurisprudence
53.5 Conclusion
References
54 Organized Crime
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Origins of the Concept
54.3 Construction of a Crime and Design of Criminal Law Offenses
54.3.1 The U.S. Experience
54.3.2 Modern Approaches to Constructing Organized Crime Offenses
54.4 The Police View on Organized Crime
54.4.1 Introduction
54.4.2 Europol
54.4.3 Interpol
54.4.4 Other International Organizations’ Voices
54.5 “Leaks”, Civil Society and Investigative Reporting
54.6 Relevance of Organized Crime for International Conflict and Security
54.7 Conclusion
References
Part VI Case Studies
55 Cambodia
55.1 Introduction
55.2 The Legacy of the Past
55.2.1 The Pre-1975 Period
55.2.2 The Post-1975 Period
55.3 Post-Conflict Reconstruction
55.3.1 Peace Agreement
55.3.2 Post-UNTAC
55.4 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
55.4.1 Structure and Composition
55.4.2 Overview of the Applicable International and Domestic Laws
55.4.3 Case Law
55.5 The Current Justice System and Political Climate in Cambodia
55.5.1 The Justice System
55.5.2 The Political Climate
55.5.3 The ECCC’s Contribution to the Development of the Rule of Law in Cambodia
55.6 Conclusion
References
56 Myanmar
56.1 Myanmar: A State of Colonialism, Conflict and Coups
56.1.1 Terminology
56.1.2 Myanmar as a State: A Turbulent History
56.2 Constant Conflict
56.2.1 Conflict Case Study Examples: Karen and Kachin
56.3 The Rohingya Genocide
56.4 Myanmar’s Conflicts and Genocide in International Law
56.4.1 The Universal Periodic Review
56.4.2 The United Nations Security Council
56.4.3 International Court of Justice
56.4.4 International Criminal Court
56.5 Conclusion
References
57 Northern Cyprus
57.1 Introduction: From Colony to Independence
57.2 Cyprus Issue between Zurich and London
57.3 The Establishment of Cyprus Democracy in 1960 and the Greco-Turkish Cyprus Republic
57.4 The Period 1960–1963: The Post-Independence Breakdown
57.5 From the Inter-Communal Disputes to the Breakdown of Constitutional Order
57.6 On the Road to the Conflict of 1974: Inter-Communal Negotiations
57.7 The First Intervention (Attila I) (July 1974)
57.8 The Second Intervention (Attila II) (August 1974)
57.9 Negotiations between Communities, Motherlands and the UN Involvement
57.9.1 From “High-Level Agreements” to “Interim Agreement”
57.9.2 From the “Draft Framework Agreement” to “Confidence Building Measures”
57.9.3 The Annan Plan
57.9.4 The New Era of Negotiations: The Cyprus Issue after Annan
57.10 TRNC’s Matters on State and Statehood and International Law
57.11 Conclusion
References
58 Former Yugoslavia
58.1 Introduction: A Brief History Before the War
58.2 On the Road to War: First Steps to Yugoslavia’s Disintegration
58.3 The First Phase: The Beginning of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia and the Rise of Ethnic Tensions
58.4 The Second Phase: Self-Determination and the End of Yugoslavia
58.4.1 The War in Slovenia
58.4.2 The War in Croatia
58.4.3 The War in Bosnia–Herzegovina
58.5 The Dayton Peace Agreement
58.6 The Question on Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
58.7 Conclusion
References
59 Northern Ireland: The Right to Life, Victim Mobilisation, and the Legacy of Conflict
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Background: Human Rights and the Northern Ireland Conflict
59.3 Rights in Practice: Northern Ireland, the ECtHR, and Article 2
59.3.1 Northern Ireland and Article 2 ECHR: The Right to Life
59.4 The Rhetoric of Rights: Victim Mobilisation and Article 2 Compliant Investigations
59.4.1 Opposition to Human Rights Language in Northern Ireland
59.5 Conclusion
References
60 The “War on Terror”
60.1 Introduction
60.2 The Post 9/11 Securitisation and the ‘War on Terror’ Paradigm
60.2.1 Domestic Securitisation
60.2.2 International Securitisation
60.3 Designing the ‘War on Terror’
60.3.1 The Complementarity of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law
60.3.2 The ‘War on Terror’ as an Armed Conflict
60.3.3 The Concept of Armed Conflict within International Law
60.3.4 The ‘War on Terror’, Core IHL Protections and Individual Terror Suspects
60.4 The post 9/11 Securitisation Catalysts and the Legacy of the ‘War on Terror’
60.5 Conclusion
References
61 Jihad Misplaced for Terrorism: An Overview of the Boko Haram Crisis from Islamic and International Humanitarian Law Perspectives
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Boko Haram: Its Emergence, Causes and Organisational Structure
61.2.1 Emergence of Boko Haram
61.2.2 Causes of Boko Haram Crisis
61.2.3 Organisational Structure of Boko Haram
61.3 Terrorism, Jihad and Boko Haram
61.3.1 Defining Terrorism
61.3.2 Defining Jihad
61.3.3 Is Boko Haram Engaged in Jihad?
61.3.4 Can Boko Haram Declare Jihad?
61.3.5 Is Boko Haram Engaged in an Internal Armed Conflict under IHL?
61.4 Basic Principles of Islamic Law of Jihad and IHL
61.4.1 Principle of Military Necessity
61.4.2 Principle of Distinction
61.4.3 Principle of Proportionality
61.4.4 Principle of Humanity
61.5 Trial of Boko Haram Suspects in Domestic Courts or before the International Criminal Court
61.6 Conclusion
References
62 Accountability of Religious Actors for Conflicts Motivated by Religion
62.1 Introduction: The Responsibility of Religion and the Responsibility of Religious Actors
62.2 Religious Authority as a Central Factor in the Attribution of Responsibility to Religious Actors
62.3 Responsibility of Religious Actors under Municipal and International Law
62.4 The Catholic Church and Islam as Accountable Religious Actors
62.5 Religious Authority in the Catholic Church: The Holy See and Local Churches
62.6 Religious Authority in Islam: The Central Role of Sharia Scholars
62.7 Conclusion
References
63 The Children vs the Church: Human Rights and the Holy See in the Sex Abuse Crisis
63.1 Sex Abuse by Catholic Clergy: Local and Global Responsibilities
63.2 The Holy See before the Council of Europe
63.3 The Holy See before the International Criminal Court
63.4 The Holy See before the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies
63.4.1 The Holy See before the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child
63.4.2 The Holy See before the United Nations Committee against Torture
63.4.3 The Holy See Before the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
63.4.4 Preliminary Conclusions: The Understanding of the International Obligations of the Holy See by United Nations Treaty Bodies
63.5 The Holy See in Dialogue with the United Nations Treaty Bodies
63.6 Conclusion
References
64 The Role of International Law in the Prevention and Resolution of Possible Conflicts over Water in Central Asia: A Comparative Study with Special Reference to the European Union (EU)
64.1 An Overview: The Role of International Water Law in the Prevention and Resolution of Possible Conflicts over Water in Central Asia
64.2 The Right to Water
64.3 Substantive Principles Concerning the Sharing of Transboundary Water Resources
64.4 How Can International Water Law Prevent and Resolve Possible Conflicts over Water?
64.5 Water Scarcity, Disputes and International Law–Scarcity or Lack of Political Will: What Really Connects Water Resources to Conflicts?
64.6 Agreements Governing the Management of Transboundary Watercourses in the EU
64.6.1 The Rhine River Basin and the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR)
64.6.2 The EU Framework
64.6.3 The 1992 Water Convention and the 1997 Watercourses Convention
64.7 Enforcement of International Water Law in Central Asia: Examples from Kazakhstani Jurisdiction
64.8 Conclusion
References