Instrumentation and Measurement Technologies for Water Cycle Management

Acknowledgements
Contents
1 Preface
References
2 Regional Adaptation of Water Quality Algorithms for Monitoring Inland Waters: Case Study from Irish Lakes
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Need for Remote Sensing Technologies
2.1.2 Water Quality Monitoring in Ireland
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Field Sampling
2.2.2 Sentinel-2 Imagery Collection
2.2.3 Field Radiometry
2.3 Results and Discussions
2.3.1 Atmospheric Correction
2.3.2 Water Quality Parameters Validation
2.3.3 Coupling of C2RCC and Acolite
2.3.4 EO Platform for Monitoring Water Quality
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Optical Remote Sensing in Lake Trasimeno: Understanding from Applications Across Diverse Temporal, Spectral and Spatial Scales
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Study Area
3.3 High Frequency Spectroradiometric Measurements
3.4 Long Term EO Data-Set
3.5 Spaceborne Imaging Spectrometry
3.6 High Spatial Resolution Products
3.7 Conclusions
References
4 Satellite Instrumentation and Technique for Oil Pollution Monitoring of the Seas
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Physical Principles and Methods of Oil Spill Detection
4.3 Satellites and Sensors
4.4 Examples of Oil Spill Pollution
4.5 Discussion
4.6 Conclusions
References
5 Satellite Instrumentation and Technique for Monitoring of Seawater Quality
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical Principles and Methods of Remote Sensing of Seawater Quality
5.3 Satellites and Sensors
5.4 Examples of Oil Spill Pollution, Turbid Waters and Algae Bloom
5.4.1 Oil Pollution
5.4.2 Turbid Waters
5.4.3 Algae Bloom
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Inland Water Altimetry: Technological Progress and Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Radar and Laser Altimetry
6.2.1 Altimetry, the Principle and the Missions
6.2.2 Limitations, Accuracy, and Current Improved Algorithms
6.3 Applications of Satellite Altimetry
6.3.1 Lake Studies Using Satellite Altimetry
6.3.2 Reservoir and Transboundary Water Monitoring Using Satellite Altimetry
6.3.3 Water Level Over Rivers and Applications for Ungauged Basin
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Generic Strategy for Consistency Validation of the Satellite-, In-Situ-, and Reanalysis—Based Climate Data Records (CDRs) Essential Climate Variables (ECVs)
7.1 Consistency Validation Requirements and Capacities
7.1.1 Consistency Validation Requirements
7.1.2 Consistency Validation Capacities
7.2 Case Study: Consistency Among Hydrological Cycle Variables
7.3 Essentials of Current Practices and Strategy for Future Work
7.3.1 Essentials of Consistency Validation for Current Practice Examples
7.3.2 Generic Strategy of Consistency Validation
7.4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
8 Optical Spectroscopy for on Line Water Monitoring
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Absorption Spectroscopy
8.1.2 Light Scattering Methods
8.1.3 Fluorescence Spectroscopy
8.1.4 Raman Spectroscopy
8.2 Conclusions
References
9 Fiber Optic Technology for Environmental Monitoring: State of the Art and Application in the Observatory of Transfers in the Vadose Zone-(O-ZNS)
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fiber Optic Technology: State of the Art and Environmental Applications
9.2.1 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors: Point Measurements
9.2.2 Distributed FO Sensors: Continuously Sensitive
9.2.3 Distributed Sensors Performance in the Environmental Application
9.2.4 Chalcogenide FO Sensors
9.3 O-ZNS Project: Main Objectives, First Results and Instrumentation Strategy
9.3.1 The Beauce Limestone Aquifer
9.3.2 The Objectives of the O-ZNS Project
9.3.3 Preliminary Investigations Made Within the Framework of O-ZNS Project
9.3.4 Instrumentation Strategy of the O-ZNS Project
9.4 Installation of FO Sensors on the O-ZNS Experimental Site
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Plants, Vital Players in the Terrestrial Water Cycle
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Terrestrial Water Cycle and the Role of Transpiration
10.1.2 Water Movement in the Plant
10.1.3 Root-Soil Water Exchange
10.1.4 Stomata
10.1.5 Atmosphere and Soil Effects on Transpiration
10.1.6 Measuring Plant Water Relations: Where and How
10.2 Measuring Techniques for Stomatal Conductance and Water-Vapor Exchange at the Leaf Atmosphere Interface
10.2.1 Microscopy
10.2.2 Gas Exchange Measurements
10.2.3 Scintillometry and Eddy Covariance
10.3 Measuring Techniques of Water Status and Transpiration from Leaf to Canopy Scale
10.3.1 Thermometry
10.3.2 Optical Measurements
10.3.3 Microwave Measurements
10.4 Measuring Techniques of Plant Water Dynamics
10.4.1 Transpiration Measurements via Sap Flow Dynamics
10.4.2 Dendrometry
10.4.3 Lysimetry
10.4.4 Stable Water Isotopes Measurements
10.5 Novel Approaches to Plant Water Status Measurements
10.5.1 Acoustic Measurements of Leaf and Plant Water Status
10.5.2 Accelerometry
10.6 Outlook
References
11 Improving Water Quality and Security with Advanced Sensors and Indirect Water Sensing Methods
11.1 Issues and Challenges on Water Sensing
11.1.1 Guaranteeing the Sustainability of Its Water Cycle Is Essential to European Resilience
11.2 New Sensing Techniques Developed for Water Security
11.2.1 Introduction of Aqua3S
11.2.2 Sensor-Based Techniques
11.2.3 Complementing Direct Sensing by Indirect Techniques
11.3 Low-Cost Multiparameter Water Quality Monitoring Through Nanomaterials
11.3.1 Monitoring Matrix Composition: A Challenge of In-situ Water Quality Monitoring
11.3.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Multiparameter Water Quality Sensing: A Solution?
11.3.3 Success at Prototype Level
11.3.4 Reaching Pre-industrial Series for Field Deployments
11.4 Conclusions and Future Work
References
12 Sensor Web and Internet of Things Technologies for Hydrological Measurement Data
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Relevant Standards and Technologies
12.2.1 Sensor Web Standards
12.2.2 Internet of Things Technologies
12.3 Technical Challenges for Efficient Water Monitoring
12.3.1 Collecting Sensor Data Streams
12.3.2 Data Management
12.3.3 Lightweight Deployment
12.3.4 Data Harmonization
12.3.5 Semantic Interoperability
12.4 Concept for a Sensor Web Based Water Monitoring System
12.5 Deployment and Evaluation at the Wupperverband
12.6 Future Challenges
References
13 Smart Sensors for Smart Waters
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 The Historical View
13.1.2 Why Measure Water Quality Online—The Drivers
13.1.3 Why Norms and Standards Are so Important for Operators
13.2 Water Quality Needs Data Quality
13.2.1 Reproducibility and Precision
13.2.2 Accuracy and Error—Who Is Right, Who Is Wrong?
13.2.3 The “Smart Water” Paradigm—A Plea for Comparability
13.2.4 Real-Time Data Validation
13.3 Substances, Tools and Applications
13.3.1 UV–Vis Spectral Sensors
13.3.2 “Indirect” Spectral Measurement
13.3.3 Light Scattering Technologies
13.3.4 Fluorescence Spectroscopy
13.3.5 Electrical Conductivity
13.3.6 Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE), Sensors and Probes
13.4 Turning Data into Information—Some Monitoring and Control Applications
13.4.1 Control of Waste Water Processes
13.4.2 Delta Spectrometry for Process Control
13.4.3 Prediction of Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) by Delta Spectrometry
13.4.4 Predictive or Feed-Forward Control (FFC)
13.4.5 Feed Forward Coagulation Control (FFCC)
13.4.6 Prediction of Chlorine Demand and Feed Forward Chlorine Control
13.4.7 Industrial Emissions Monitoring
13.5 Trends
13.5.1 IO(W)T—The Internet of (Water) Things
13.5.2 Digital Twin (DT)
13.5.3 Sensors for the People
13.5.4 Soft Sensors—Mining the Wealth of Water Data
13.6 Practical Deficits—The Urgent Wish List
13.7 Conclusions
References
14 Catchment-Based Water Monitoring Using a Hierarchy of Sensor Types
14.1 Introduction
14.2 In-situ and Remote Instrumentation
14.2.1 In-situ Instrumentation
14.2.2 Practical Consideration for In-situ Sensing
14.2.3 Remote Instrumentation
14.3 Hierarchical Approach to Monitoring Catchment-Based Problems
14.3.1 Combinations of Sensor Types to Monitor Pollution Events
14.4 Conclusions
References
15 Spectral Induced Polarization (SIP) Imaging for the Characterization of Hydrocarbon Contaminant Plumes
15.1 Spectral Induced Polarization (SIP) Imaging
15.2 Electrical Properties of Natural Media
15.3 Electrical Properties of Contaminated Soil
15.3.1 Hydrocarbons in Soils: Polar and Non-polar Compounds and Their SIP Response
15.3.2 Electrical Properties of Mature Hydrocarbon Plumes
15.4 Field Procedure and Data Processing
15.5 Interpretation of Field-Scale SIP Imaging Results
15.6 Monitoring of Nanoparticles Injections for Groundwater Remediation
15.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
16 Direct Current Electrical Methods for Hydrogeological Purposes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Definition and Hydrogeological Context
16.3 Measurement Setting
16.3.1 Unconventional DC Field Configuration
16.4 Modelling and Inversion
16.5 Field Applications
16.5.1 Cross-Hole Electrical Resistivity Tomography for High Resolution Image of a Confined Aquifer
16.5.2 Cave-Surface Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Karst Aquifer Assessment
16.5.3 Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Deep Groundwater Studies
16.6 Conclusions
References
17 Digital Soil Mapping Using Drone-Borne Ground-Penetrating Radar
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Methodology
17.2.1 Radar Equation
17.2.2 Green's Function
17.2.3 Full-Wave Inversion
17.3 Surface Soil Moisture Mapping in Agricultural Fields
17.4 Summary and Perspectives
References
18 Seismic Methods for Aquifer Analysis: The Basso Livenza Case Study
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Seismic Acquisition
18.3 Seismic Analysis
18.3.1 Traveltime Reflection Tomography and Modeling in Depth
18.3.2 2D Seismic Data
18.3.3 3D Seismic Cubes
18.3.4 AVO Analysis
18.4 Results
18.4.1 2D Depth Models
18.4.2 3D Depth Models
18.4.3 AVO Inversions
18.4.4 Petrophysical Properties
18.5 Discussion
18.6 Summary
References
19 Multi-geophysical Field Measurements to Characterize Lithological and Hydraulic Properties of a Multi-scale Karstic and Fractured Limestone Vadose Zone: Beauce Aquifer (O-ZNS)
19.1 O-ZNS Project
19.1.1 Generalities
19.1.2 HydroGeophysical Approach for Subsoil Characterization
19.1.3 Overall Lithology
19.1.4 Geological Structures Characterization
19.2 O-ZNS Geophysical Strategy
19.2.1 Interest of a Multi-geophysical Approach
19.2.2 Overview of the Measurements Made on O-ZNS Experimental Site
19.2.3 Protocols of the Measurements Presented in This Study
19.3 O-ZNS Preliminary Characterization
19.3.1 Surface Results
19.3.2 2D Profiles
19.3.3 Electrical, GPR, and NMR Profiles
19.4 Discussion
19.4.1 Geophysics for Microstructure and Lithology
19.4.2 Hydrogeophysics: A Powerful Solution for Monitoring the Water Content in the Vadose Zone
19.5 Conclusion
References
20 Measuring the Dielectric Properties of Soil: A Review and Some Innovative Proposals
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Technologies for the Measurement of Dielectric (and Possibly Magnetic) Properties of Soil
20.2.1 Electromagnetic Methods of Measuring Permittivity
20.2.2 Resonant Methods
20.2.3 Non-resonant Methods
20.2.4 Transmission Line Method
20.3 Results
20.4 Conclusions
References
21 GPR Water Pipe Monitoring and Leaks Characterization: A Differential Microwave Tomography Approach
21.1 Introduction
21.2 The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
21.2.1 Working Principle
21.2.2 GPR Configuration for Water Pipe Monitoring
21.3 GPR and Water Pipe Monitoring: State of Art and Open Issues
21.4 Microwave Imaging
21.4.1 Review of the Main Concepts
21.4.2 A Model-Based Differential Tomographic Approach for Leak Monitoring
21.5 Preliminary Validation Analysis
21.6 Conclusions
References
22 Hydrogeophysical Methods for Water Resources Protection and Management
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methodology
22.2.1 Constitutive Relationships
22.2.2 Time-Lapse Geophysical Acquisition
22.2.3 Hydrological Model Calibration Against Geophysical Data
22.3 Soil Water Dynamics
22.4 Deep Vadose Zone Dynamics and Groundwater Protection
22.5 Hillslope Hydrology
22.6 Aquifer Characterization
22.7 Conclusions
References
23 Advanced Combined Geophysical-Geological Mapping of the Sea of Galilee and Its Vicinity
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Brief Geological-Geophysical Background
23.3 Gravity Field and Seismological Data
23.4 Magnetic Field Analysis
23.4.1 Magnetic Map Compilation
23.4.2 Magnetic Field Transformations
23.4.3 Advanced Quantitative Interpretation
23.4.4 3D Magnetic Field Modeling
23.5 Paleomagnetic Reconstructions
23.6 Discussions and Conclusions
References
24 Modelling a Polluted Aquifer with Reconstructed Heterogeneity Using the Composite Medium Indicator Kriging
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Composite Medium Approach
24.3 Application to the Brownfield of “Napoli Orientale” (Italy)
24.3.1 Regional Scale Bi-Dimensional Model
24.3.2 Local Scale Three-Dimensional Model
24.4 Conclusions
24.5 Recommendations
References