Insect Pests of Potato: Global Perspectives on Biology and Management

Front Cover
Insect Pests of Potato
Insect Pests of Potato: Global Perspectives on Biology and Management
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
I - Potato as an important staple crop
1 - Potatoes and their pests: setting the stage
1.1 History and present status
1.2 Potatoes and human civilization
1.3 Insect pests
1.4 Meeting the challenge
References
2 - Growing potatoes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Geographic distribution
2.3 Climate requirements
2.4 Soil requirements
2.5 Soil reaction (pH)
2.6 Major inputs: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and organic matter
2.7 Irrigation requirements
2.8 Seed planting depth, spacing, and hilling
2.9 Time to maturity
2.10 Types of cultivars
2.11 Remote sensing
References
3 - Economic considerations in potato production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Economics of seed pricing and production
3.2.1 Pricing
3.2.2 Seed production
3.3 Frozen processed potatoes
3.3.1 Market structure
3.3.2 Frozen processed contract negotiations and complications
3.3.3 Frozen processed contract parameters
3.4 Potato chips
3.5 Fresh potatoes
3.5.1 Market structure
3.5.2 Grading and packing
3.5.3 Bargaining associations in the fresh potato industry
3.6 Storage economics
3.6.1 Fixed costs
3.6.2 Storage variable costs
3.6.3 Understanding shrinkage
3.6.4 Other storage variable costs
3.6.5 Monthly break-even points
3.7 US potato consumption trends
3.8 Potato demand
3.8.1 Population size and distribution
3.8.2 Consumer income
3.8.3 Other goods
3.8.3.1 Substitutes
3.8.3.2 Complements
3.8.4 Consumer tastes and preferences
3.9 Global trends and future prospects for potato demand in developing countries
References
II - Biology of major pests
4 - Colorado potato beetle
4.1 Taxonomy and morphological description
4.2 Origins and history of spread
4.3 Genetic variability
4.4 Pest status and yield loss
4.5 Seasonal life cycle and diapause
4.6 Interactions with host plants
4.7 Reproduction and individual development
4.8 Movement and dispersal
4.9 Management implications
References
5 - Aphids
5.1 Basic biology
5.1.1 Taxonomy
5.1.2 Morphology
5.1.3 Life cycles
5.1.4 Diversity of aphids affecting potato
5.1.5 Population growth and regulation
5.1.6 Movement and dispersal
5.2 Interactions with host plants
5.2.1 Host finding, recognition, and acceptance
5.2.2 Phloem feeding
5.2.3 Overcoming plant defenses
5.2.4 Social facilitation
5.3 Virus transmission
5.4 Management approaches
5.4.1 Monitoring aphid populations
5.4.2 Aphid control versus virus control
5.4.3 Manipulation of crop borders
5.4.4 Mineral oils
5.5 Summary and future directions
References
6 - Psyllids
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Potato psyllid (Bactericera cockerelli)
6.2.1 Identification
6.2.2 Geographic distribution
6.2.3 Biology and ecology
6.2.3.1 Host range
6.2.3.2 Haplotypes
6.2.3.3 Lifecycle and reproductive biology
6.2.3.4 Phenology
6.2.4 Damage
6.2.4.1 Psyllid yellows
6.2.4.2 Zebra chip disease
6.2.4.2.1 Symptoms
6.2.4.2.2 Liberibacter, the putative causal agent of ZC
6.2.4.2.3 Lso haplotypes
6.2.4.2.4 Geographic distribution
6.2.4.2.5 Epidemiology
6.2.4.2.6 Economic impact
6.2.5 Management
6.2.5.1 Monitoring
6.2.5.2 Insecticides
6.2.5.3 Cultural and physical control
6.2.5.4 Biological control
6.2.5.5 Host plant resistance
6.3 Other psyllids
6.3.1 Bactericera nigricornis
6.3.2 Russelliana solanicola
6.3.3 Acizzia spp.
6.4 Final remarks
References
7 - Wireworms as pests of potato
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Elaterid biology
7.2.1 Wireworm diversity
7.2.2 Identification
7.2.2.1 Identifications based on larval morphology
7.2.2.2 Molecular approaches
7.2.2.3 Pheromone-based approaches
7.3 Species of economic importance in the holarctic
7.3.1 Pacific Northwest, Montana, California
7.3.2 Midwestern USA
7.3.3 Mid-Atlantic, Central Eastern USA
7.3.4 Southeastern USA
7.3.5 Northeastern USA
7.3.6 Canada, Alaska
7.3.7 Russia and Eastern Europe
7.3.8 Western and Central Europe
7.3.9 Asia
7.4 Differences within economic species
7.4.1 Mating, oviposition, and larval development
7.4.2 Larval activity
7.4.3 Preferences in soil type and soil moisture content
7.4.4 Feeding preferences
7.5 Wireworms and the potato crop
7.6 Sampling
7.6.1 Wireworm sampling and risk assessment
7.6.1.1 Absolute sampling methods
7.6.1.2 Relative sampling methods
7.6.1.3 Absolute versus relative sampling
7.6.1.4 Timing of sampling in potato fields
7.6.1.5 Habitat and risk to potatoes
7.6.2 Click beetle sampling
7.6.2.1 Pheromone traps
7.6.2.2 In-field click beetle monitoring
7.6.2.3 Field headland click beetle monitoring
7.6.2.4 Other click beetle trapping systems
7.7 Wireworm control
7.7.1 Cultural methods
7.7.1.1 Crop avoidance and rotation
7.7.1.2 Cultivation
7.7.1.3 Soil amendments
7.7.1.4 Potato varietal tolerance
7.7.1.5 Early harvest
7.7.2 Chemical methods
7.7.2.1 Wireworm controls
7.7.2.2 Organochlorines
7.7.2.3 Organophosphates and carbamates
7.7.2.4 Neonicotinoids
7.7.2.5 Synthetic pyrethroids
7.7.2.6 Phenylpyrazols
7.7.2.7 Diamides
7.7.2.8 Meta diamides
7.7.2.9 Insecticide combinations
7.7.2.10 Click beetle controls
7.7.3 Biological controls
7.7.3.1 Predators
7.7.3.2 Microbial pathogens
7.7.3.3 Nematodes
7.7.4 Semiochemical controls
7.8 Conclusions
References
8 - Potato tuberworm∗
8.1 Taxonomy of P. operculella and other “tuberworms”
8.2 Phthorimaea operculella distribution around the world
8.2.1 America
8.2.2 Asia and Australasia
8.2.3 Europe
8.3 Host range
8.4 Life cycle
8.4.1 Adults
8.4.2 Eggs
8.4.3 Larvae
8.4.4 Pupae
8.5 Life table
8.6 Damage in the field
8.7 Damage from field to storage
8.8 Developmental thresholds and temperatures
8.9 Monitoring Phthorimaea operculella
8.9.1 Pheromones
8.9.2 Trapping
8.10 Integrated pest management of P. operculella
8.10.1 Cultural control
8.10.1.1 Elimination of volunteer potatoes and cull piles
8.10.1.2 Rolling potatoes
8.10.1.3 Vine killing
8.10.1.4 Soil moisture
8.10.2 Biological control
8.10.2.1 Parasitoids
8.10.2.2 Predators
8.10.2.3 Nematodes
8.10.2.4 Pathogens
8.10.3 Chemical control
8.10.4 Control in storage
8.10.5 Plant resistance
8.11 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9 - Hemipterans, other than aphids and psyllids affecting potatoes worldwide
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Leafhoppers
9.2.1 Empoasca fabae (potato leafhopper)
9.2.1.1 Biology and ecology
9.2.1.2 Damage and pest status
9.2.1.3 Pest management
9.2.2 Empoasca decipiens (green leafhopper)
9.2.2.1 Biology and ecology
9.2.2.2 Damage and pest status
9.2.2.3 Pest management
9.2.3 Circulifer tenellus (beet leafhopper)
9.2.3.1 Biology and ecology
9.2.3.2 Damage and pest status
9.2.3.3 Pest management
9.2.4 Macrosteles quadrilineatus (aster leafhopper)
9.2.4.1 Biology and ecology
9.2.4.2 Damage and pest status
9.2.4.3 Pest management
9.3 Planthoppers
9.3.1 Hyalesthes obsoletus
9.3.2 Reptalus panzeri and R. quinquecostatus
9.4 True bugs
9.4.1 Lygaeidae (seed bugs)
9.4.2 Pentatomidae (stinkbugs)
9.4.3 Miridae (plant bugs)
9.4.4 Lygus hesperus and L. elisus
9.4.4.1 Biology and ecology
9.4.4.2 Damage and pest status
9.4.4.3 Pest management
9.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
10 - Potato ladybirds
10.1 Underappreciated defoliator
10.2 Morphology
10.3 Geographic distribution, host range, and taxonomy
10.4 Damage
10.5 Biology
10.5.1 Life cycle
10.5.2 Interactions with host plants
10.5.3 Abiotic effects
10.5.4 Natural enemies
10.6 Management
10.6.1 Chemical control
10.6.2 Biological control
10.6.3 Host plant resistance
10.6.4 Other methods
10.7 Conclusions and future directions
References
III - Management approaches
11 - Chemical control
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Early history of chemical control in potatoes
11.3 The pesticide treadmill
11.3.1 Chlorinated hydrocarbons
11.3.2 Organophosphates and carbamates
11.3.3 Pyrethroids
11.3.4 Neonicotinoids
11.4 A plethora of chemical control options still available in the 21st century
11.4.1 Diamides
11.4.2 Cryolite
11.4.3 Avermectins
11.4.4 Novaluron
11.4.5 Cyromazine
11.4.6 Indoxacarb
11.4.7 Metaflumizone
11.4.8 Tolfenpyrad
11.4.9 Spinosyns
11.5 Insecticide options for organic potatoes
11.5.1 Pyrethrins
11.5.2 Azadirachtin
11.5.3 Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies tenebrionis (Bt)
11.6 Chemical control of hemipteran pests
11.6.1 Pymetrozine
11.6.2 Flonicamid
11.6.3 Spirotetramat
11.7 Chemical control of wireworms
11.8 Chemical control of potato tuberworm
11.9 Final thoughts
References
12 - Insecticidal RNA interference (RNAi) for control of potato pests
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Parameters affecting insecticidal activity of dsRNA
12.3 Delivery of dsRNA to potato pests
12.4 Safety of insecticidal dsRNA
12.5 Use of dsRNA against potato pests
12.5.1 Potato psyllid (Bactericera cockerelli)
12.5.2 The 28-spotted potato ladybird (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata)
12.5.3 Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata)
12.5.4 Myzus persicae (green peach aphid)
12.5.5 Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella)
12.6 Resistance to dsRNA and management in potato
12.7 Conclusions and future prospects
Acknowledgments
References
13 - Biological and behavioral control of potato insect pests
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Natural enemies of major potato pests
13.2.1 Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
13.2.1.1 Bacteria and Colorado potato beetle
13.2.1.2 Entomopathogenic fungi and Colorado potato beetle
13.2.1.3 Entomopathogenic nematodes and Colorado potato beetle
13.2.1.4 Egg parasitoids
13.2.1.5 Larval and adult parasitoids: Myiopharus spp.
13.2.1.6 Carabid predator-parasitoid: Lebia grandis Hentz
13.2.1.7 Predatory stink bugs: Perillus and Podisus
13.2.1.8 Coleomegilla maculata (DeGeer) and other Coccinellidae
13.2.1.9 Interaction among Colorado potato beetle natural enemies
13.2.1.10 Semiochemicals and Colorado potato beetle
13.2.2 Potato tuber moths (tuberworms) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)
13.2.2.1 Viruses of potato tuber moths
13.2.2.2 Bacillus thuringiensis for potato tuber moth control
13.2.2.3 Fungi and potato tuber moths
13.2.2.4 Entomopathogenic nematodes and potato tuber moths
13.2.2.5 Arthropod natural enemies of potato tuber moths
13.2.2.6 Classical biological control of potato tuber moth
13.2.2.7 Inundative biological control of potato tuber moths
13.2.2.8 Semiochemical-based behavioral tools for management of potato tuber moths
13.2.2.9 Summary of biological and behavioral control for tuber moth species
13.2.3 Hadda beetle and potato lady beetle: Epilachna spp.
13.2.3.1 Fungi and Epilachna spp.
13.2.3.2 Arthropod natural enemies of hadda beetle, Epilachna vigintioctopunctata
13.2.3.3 Arthropod natural enemies of Potato lady beetle, Epilachna vigintioctomaculata
13.2.3.4 Annual inoculation of Pediobius against Epilachna in USA
13.2.3.5 Summary of role of biological control for Epilachna potato pests
13.2.3.6 Possible role of attractants in behavioral manipulation of lady beetles
13.2.4 Andean potato weevil
13.2.4.1 Natural enemies of Andean potato weevils: bacteria
13.2.4.2 Natural enemies of Andean potato weevils: fungi
13.2.4.3 Natural enemies of Andean potato weevils: entomopathogenic nematodes
13.2.4.4 Arthropod natural enemies of Andean potato weevil
13.2.4.5 Biological control in context of IPM for Andean potato weevil
13.2.5 Wireworms (Elateridae)
13.2.5.1 Bacteria and wireworms
13.2.5.2 Fungal pathogens and wireworms
13.2.5.3 Entomopathogenic nematodes and wireworms
13.2.6 Potato psyllid
13.2.6.1 Potato psyllid natural enemies in original and invaded regions
13.2.6.2 Fungi and potato psyllid
13.2.6.3 Potential for symbiont manipulation?
13.2.6.4 Attractants for potato psyllid?
13.2.6.5 Overall context for sustainable potato psyllid management including biocontrol
13.2.7 Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
13.3 Biological and behavioral control deployments
13.3.1 Conservation biocontrol
13.3.2 Augmentative and inundative biocontrol
13.3.3 Introduction biocontrol
13.3.4 Biological and behavioral control: interactions with other management methods
13.3.5 Interaction with chemical control (insecticides, fungicides)
13.3.6 Interaction with cultural controls (cultivar, tillage, rotation)
13.3.7 Interaction with crop resistance (cultivar, transgenes)
13.3.8 Interactions between microbial and arthropod biological controls
13.4 Endophytic fungi
13.5 Pheromones for monitoring and population management
13.6 Interactions of biological and behavioral control
13.7 Current and future research needs
13.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 - Potato resistance against insect herbivores
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Natural variation in potato insect resistance
14.2.1 Glycoalkaloids
14.2.2 Trichomes
14.2.3 Other defenses
14.2.4 Potato tolerance to insect pests
14.3 Engineered resistance
14.3.1 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins
14.3.2 Protease inhibitors
14.3.3 Avidins
14.3.4 Lectins
14.3.5 RNA interference (RNAi) gene silencing in insects
14.3.6 Plant gene silencing
14.4 Constraints on host plant resistance
14.5 Future directions
References
15 - Cultural control and other non-chemical methods
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Management of abiotic conditions
15.2.1 Site selection, planting and harvest time
15.2.2 Soil tillage
15.2.3 Soil moisture
15.2.4 Mulches
15.2.5 Fertilizers and other soil amendments
15.2.6 Physical control methods
15.3 Management of biotic conditions
15.3.1 Intercropping
15.3.2 Trap crops and barrier crops
15.4 Examples of habitat management
15.4.1 Push-pull and trap crop strategies
15.4.2 Cover-crop residues
15.4.3 Antifeedants
15.5 Concluding remarks
References
Further readings
IV Problems and solutions in major potato-producing areas of the world
16 - Latin America potato production: pests and foes
16.1 History of potato production in Latin America
16.2 Unintentional and intentional breeding efforts
16.3 Potato's contribution to the national economies
16.4 Potato issues in Latin America
16.5 Integrated pest management approach to control pest problems in potatoes: common issues across diverse regions
16.6 Main pests affecting potato production in Latin America
16.6.1 Order Hemiptera
16.6.1.1 Family Aphididae
16.6.1.2 Family Miridae
16.6.1.3 Family Triozidae
16.6.2 Order Lepidoptera
16.6.2.1 Family Gelechiidae
16.6.3 Order Diptera
16.6.3.1 Family Agromyzidae
16.6.4 Order Coleoptera
16.6.4.1 Family Curculionidae
16.6.4.2 Family Meloidae
16.6.4.3 Family Scarabeidae
16.6.4.4 Family Chrysomelidae
16.6.5 Order Thysanoptera
16.7 Natural enemies
References
17 - The United States of America and Canada
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Potato farming in overall economy
17.3 Local agroclimatic conditions
17.4 Main producers and market conditions
17.5 Main insect pests
17.6 Methods of pest control
17.7 Problems and perspectives
References
18 - Regional overview of potato pest problem in EU
18.1 Potato has been cultivated in Europe for over 500 years
18.2 Two major pests of potato in Europe
18.3 Potato farming was worth EUR 11 billion in 2017
18.4 Biggest current pest problems
18.5 Means of mitigating pest problems
18.6 Future challenges
18.6.1 International trade
18.6.2 Warming climate
18.6.3 Agricultural policies and consumer choices
References
19 - Russian Federation, Belarus, and Ukraine
19.1 History and local characteristics of potato production
19.2 Russian Federation
19.2.1 Potato farming in overall economy
19.2.2 Local agroclimatic conditions
19.2.3 Main producers and market conditions
19.2.4 Main insect pests
19.2.5 Methods of pest control
19.2.6 Problems and perspectives
19.3 Republic of Belarus
19.3.1 Potato farming in overall economy
19.3.2 Local agroclimatic conditions
19.3.3 Major potato producers
19.3.4 Main insect pests
19.3.5 Methods of pest control
19.3.6 Problems and perspectives
19.4 Ukraine
19.4.1 Potato farming in overall economy
19.4.2 Local agroclimatic conditions
19.4.3 Major potato producers
19.4.4 Main insect pests
19.4.5 Methods of pest control
19.4.6 Problems and perspectives
19.5 Summary and conclusions
References
20 - China and Central Asia
20.1 Potato production in China and Central Asia
20.1.1 China
20.1.2 Central Asia
20.2 Abundance, the relative importance of potato pests in China and Central Asia
20.2.1 China
20.2.2 Central Asia
20.2.2.1 Uzbekistan
20.2.2.2 Kazakhstan
20.2.2.3 Kyrgyzstan
20.2.2.4 Tajikistan and Turkmenistan
20.3 Management practices of key potato pests in China and Central Asia
20.3.1 China
20.3.1.1 Aphids
20.3.1.2 Ladybirds
20.3.1.3 Below ground insect pests
20.3.1.4 Potato tuber moth
20.3.1.5 Colorado potato beetle
20.3.2 Central Asia
20.3.2.1 Uzbekistan
20.3.2.2 Kazakhstan
20.3.2.3 Kyrgyzstan
20.3.2.4 Tajikistan and Turkmenistan
20.4 Conclusions
References
21 - Insect pests of potato in India: biology and management
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Root and tuber-eating pests
21.2.1 White grubs
21.2.1.1 Biology of white grubs
21.2.1.1.1 Brahmina coriacea
21.2.1.1.2 Holotrichia longipennis
21.2.1.1.3 Holotrichia seticollis
21.2.1.1.4 Holotrichia serrata
21.2.1.1.5 Anomala dimidiata
21.2.1.2 Management
21.2.2 Cutworms
21.2.3 Surface cutworm, Agrotis spinifera
21.2.4 Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon
21.2.5 Common cutworm, Agrotis segetum
21.2.6 Gram cutworm, Agrotis flammatra
21.2.6.1 Agrotis interacta
21.2.6.1.1 Management
21.2.7 Wireworms
21.2.7.1 Biology
21.2.7.2 Management
21.2.8 Termites and ants
21.2.8.1 Management
21.2.9 Potato tuber moth
21.2.9.1 Management
21.2.10 Mole cricket, Gryllotalpa africana Palisot
21.2.10.1 Management
21.2.11 Minor pests
21.3 Sap-feeding pests
21.3.1 Aphids
21.3.1.1 Biology of M. persicae
21.3.1.2 Management of aphids
21.3.2 Leafhoppers
21.3.2.1 Nature of damage
21.3.2.2 Transmission of diseases
21.3.2.3 Biology of leafhoppers
21.3.2.3.1 Amrasca biguttula biguttula
21.3.2.3.2 Empoasca kerri motti
21.3.2.3.3 Empoasca punjabensis
21.3.2.3.4 E. solanifolia
21.3.2.3.5 E. fabae
21.3.2.4 Control of leafhoppers
21.3.3 Thrips
21.3.3.1 Nature of damage
21.3.3.2 Biology
21.3.3.3 Transmission of tospo viruses
21.3.3.4 Control
21.3.4 White flies
21.3.4.1 Nature of damage
21.3.4.1.1 Biology of B. tabaci
21.3.4.2 Transmission of potato apical leaf curl virus
21.3.4.3 Control
21.3.5 Sap-sucking bugs
21.3.5.1 Green potato bug, Nezara viridula (Linn.)
21.3.5.1.1 Creontiades pallidifer (Walker)
21.3.5.1.2 Piezodorus hybneri (Gmelin) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
21.3.5.1.2.1 Recaredus sp.
21.4 Leaf-eating and defoliating insects
21.4.1 Defoliating caterpillars
21.4.1.1 Cabbage semilooper, Plusia orichalcea (Fab.)
21.4.2 Oriental armyworm, Mythimna separata (Walker)
21.4.3 Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma obliqua (Walker)
21.4.4 Hairy caterpillar, Dasychira mendosa (Hubner)
21.4.5 Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Fab.)
21.4.6 Gram pod borer, Heliothis armigera (Hubner)
21.4.7 Eggplant borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee
21.4.7.1 Management of lepidopterous defoliators
21.4.8 Leaf-eating beetles
21.4.8.1 Hadda beetles
21.4.9 Flea beetles, Psyllodes plana Maulik
21.4.10 Blister beetle, Epicauta hirticornis Hagg
21.4.11 Gray weevil, Myllocerus subfasciatus Guerin
References
22 - Australia and New Zealand
22.1 Overview of the industry
22.2 Main pests
22.3 Control methods
Acknowledgments
References
23 - Management of potato pests and diseases in Africa
23.1 Overview
23.2 Potato pests and diseases
23.2.1 Insect pests
23.2.1.1 Potato tuber moth
23.2.1.2 Aphids
23.2.1.3 Leafminers
23.2.1.4 Loopers
23.2.1.5 Cutworms
23.2.1.6 Armyworms
23.2.1.7 Thrips
23.2.1.8 Mites
23.2.2 Plant parasitic nematodes
23.2.2.1 Root-knot nematodes
23.2.2.2 Potato cyst nematodes
23.2.3 Potato diseases
23.2.3.1 Potato viruses
23.2.3.2 Bacterial wilt
23.2.3.3 Common scab
23.2.3.4 Powdery scab
23.2.3.5 Late blight
23.2.3.6 Early blight
23.2.3.7 Verticillium wilt
23.3 Pest and disease management practices
23.3.1 Chemical control
23.3.2 Biological control
23.3.3 Cultural control
23.3.4 Plant host resistance
23.3.4.1 The potato tuber moth
23.3.4.2 Aphids and aphid-vectored viruses
23.3.4.3 Plant parasitic nematodes
23.3.4.4 Bacterial wilt
23.3.4.5 Late blight
23.3.4.6 Common scab
23.4 Conclusion
References
V - Basic science in potato pest management
24 - Evolutionary considerations in potato pest management
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Fundamentals of evolution
24.3 Applied evolution
24.4 Evolution in agricultural ecosystems
24.5 Evolutionary process of becoming a pest
24.6 An obscure leaf beetle turns into a major pest of potatoes
24.7 Insecticide resistance
24.7.1 Insecticide treadmill
24.7.2 Colorado potato beetle as a resistant superbug
24.7.3 Green peach aphid – resistance in a mostly parthenogenic organism
24.7.4 Resistance to nonchemical control methods
24.7.5 Resistance management
24.7.6 Epigenetic considerations
24.8 Interactions with abiotic environment
24.9 Human turn to adapt?
24.10 Conclusions
References
25 - Ecology of a potato field
25.1 “Potatoes partly made of oil”
25.2 An underappreciated challenge
25.3 Healthy soils and healthy plants
25.4 Dawn of the killer fungi
25.5 The power of connections
Acknowledgments
References
26 - Ecological and evolutionary factors mitigating Colorado potato beetle adaptation to insecticides
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Genetic variation
26.3 Pesticide use
26.3.1 Insecticides
26.3.2 Fungicides
26.4 Noncrop host plants
26.5 Natural enemies
26.6 Crop rotation
26.7 Climate suitability
26.7.1 Temperature
26.7.2 Water availability
26.7.3 Fitness trade-offs
26.8 Future research
26.8.1 Examining parallel patterns of evolution of insecticide resistance in Europe
26.8.2 Regulation of gene expression
26.8.3 Legacies of historic insecticide exposure
26.8.4 Prolonged dormancy
26.8.5 Linking noncrop host plant utilization with insecticide susceptibility
26.8.6 Interactions with regional potato cultivars
26.8.7 Importance of natural enemies
26.8.8 Climate suitability
26.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
VI - Current challenges and future directions
27 - Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in potatoes
27.1 What is IPM?
27.2 The elements of IPM
27.2.1 Biological control agents
27.2.2 Cultural controls
27.2.3 Pesticides
27.3 An IPM strategy for potatoes typical in Australia
27.4 Taught everywhere but typically slow and low rates of adoption. Why?
27.5 Changing to IPM when a crisis occurs or avoiding a crisis. Examples beyond potatoes
27.6 How to achieve rapid adoption of IPM in the absence of a crisis
27.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
28 - Epilogue: the road to sustainability
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
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